免疫学完整教学课件.ppt

1、免疫学完整教学课件免疫学完整教学课件 Introduction of Neuroscience The origin of neuroscience 古希腊及更早时期对脑的认识 罗马帝国时代对脑的认识 从文艺复兴到19世纪时期对脑的认识 19世纪对脑的认识 古希腊及更早时期人类对脑的认识 ca. 4000 B.C. - Euphoriant effect of poppy plant reported in Sumerian records ca. 4000 B.C. - Clay tablets from Mesopotamia discuss how to use alcohol to d

2、ilute medicine ca. 2700 B.C. 神农氏神农氏 originates acupuncture ca. 1700 B.C. - Edwin Smith surgical papyrus (纸莎草纸) written. First written record about the nervous system ca. 1400-1200 B.C. - Ayuvedic system of Hindu medicine develops ca. 500 B.C. - Alcmaion of Crotona dissects sensory nerves and describ

3、es the optic nerve ca. 500 B.C. Empedocles suggests that visual rays cause sight 科勒药用植物(1897) Papaver somniferum Hieroglyphic for Brain Evidence of prehistoric brain surgery (over 7000 years old) The origin of neuroscience 460-379 B.C. - Hippocrates discusses epilepsy as a disturbance of the brain a

4、nd states that the brain is involved with sensation and is the seat of intelligence. 387 B.C. - Plato teaches at Athens. Believes brain is seat of mental process 335 B.C. - Aristotle writes about sleep; believes heart is seat of mental process 335-280 B.C. - Herophilus (the Father of Anatomy); belie

5、ves ventricles are seat of human intelligence 280 B.C. - Erasistratus of Chios notes divisions of the brain 古希腊解剖学家、外科医生 赫罗菲拉斯 古希腊医生 希波克拉底 The origin of neuroscience 人类应当知道，因为有了脑，我们才有了乐趣、欣喜、 欢笑和运动，才有了悲痛、哀伤、绝望和无尽的忧思。因 为有了脑，我们才以一种独特的方式拥有了智慧、获得了 知识；我们才看得见、听得到；我们才懂得了美与丑、善 与恶；我们才感受到甜美与无味同样，因为有了脑， 我们才会发狂和

6、神智昏迷，才会被畏惧和恐惧所侵扰 我们之所以会经受这些折磨，是因为脑有了病恙由于 这样一些原因，我认为，脑在一个人的机体中行使了至高 无上的权利。 希波克拉底，论神圣的疾病 （公元前四世纪） Hippocrates，On the sacred diseaese (400 BC) The origin of neuroscience The quiet, friendless boy whom no one knew. Autism or Asperger syndrome? Adam Lanza, Connecticut school shooting, a fiercely intellig

7、ent killer 罗马帝国时代对脑的认识 盖伦（Galen） 希腊医学家、作家 AD 129-200 Typology of human temperaments: blood-sanguine, black bile-melancholic, yellow bile-choleric, and phlegm-phlegmatic). 多血质 忧郁质 胆汁质 粘液质 More than 300 works in medicine and philosophy (e.g. On the usefulness of the parts of the body) Galens view of t

8、he brain prevailed for almost 1500 years: Focused the ventricles; Act as a gland. Brain of a sheep 脑室 The origin of neuroscience 从文艺复兴到18世纪末期对脑的认识 Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) French anatomist: published On the working of the human body and added more detail of the brain structure Rene Descartes (15

9、96-1650) French philosopher, the chief advocate of fluid- mechanical theory; The pineal gland; Mind and brain problem Human brain ventricles depicted during renaissance by Vesalius The brain works according to Descartes in 1662 The origin of neuroscience Fortunately, other scientists during 17-18 ce

10、nturies broke away from Galens view of the brain. By the end of 18th century, the nerve system completely dissected, and its gross anatomy described in detail. White matter and gray matter The origin of neuroscience The basic anatomical of the nerve system. CNS and PNS The lobes of the cerebrum (gyr

11、i 脑回; sulci 沟; fissures 裂; lobes 叶) The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience Injury to the brain can disrupt sensations, movement, and thought and can cause death. The brain communicates with the body via the nerves. The brain has different identifiable parts, which probably perform dif

12、ferent functions. The brain operates like a machine and follows the laws of nature. 19世纪对脑的认识 The origin of neuroscience Nerves as wires 神经犹如电缆 Localization of specific functions in different parts of the brain 特定脑功能定位于不同的脑部位 The evolution of nervous systems 神经系统的进化 The neuron: the basic functional

13、unit of the brain 神经元是脑的基本功能单元 The origin of neuroscience 神经犹如电缆 Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), Experiment and observation on electricity (1751) Luigi Galvani (1737-98) , Itanlian physician and physicist, and Emil du Bois- Reymond (1818-1896), Genman physiologist: Electrical stimulation of frog nerves

14、; Electrophysiology. Electrodes touch a frog, and the legs twitch into the upward position The origin of neuroscience Charles Bell (1774-1842), Scoland Physician and Francois Magendie (1783- 1855), French physiologist: functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord. Spina

15、l nerves and spinal nerve roots The origin of neuroscience 特定脑功能定位于不同的脑部位 In 1811, Bell proposed that the origin of the motor fibers is the cerebellum and the destination of the sensory fibers is the cerebrum. Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens, French physiologist，tested it by using experimental ablation m

16、ethod in a variety of animals (e.g. birds) Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), French physiologist, the founder of experimental brain science and a pioneer in anesthesia. The origin of neuroscience Three radical new ideas: Advocated all behavior came from the brain; Argued particular regions of

17、the cerebral cortex controlled specific functions, even the most abstract one, like generosity and religiosity; divided the cortex into at least 35 organs as specific mental faculty. Proposed that the regions grew with use and caused the skull to bulge, creating a pattern of bumps and ridges on the

18、skull as an anatomical basis for telling individual personality, i.e. phrenology（颅相说）. A phrenological Map Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) Genman physician and neuroanatomist. The origin of neuroscience 1. particular traits are not isolated to the portions of the cerebrum specified by phrenology; 2. t

19、he cerebrum participate equally in all cerebral functions; Accepted as aggregate-field view that later was shown to be erroneous, and led to a cultural reaction against the reductionist view. Brain and Behavior - Cerebral Cortex The origin of Neuroscience One of the most vociferous critics of phreno

20、logy was Flourens, who analyzed Galls ideas experimentally (partially cutting cortex of birds) and concluded: Localization of function in the cerebrum Paul Broca (1850 1900), french neurologist. He wrote in 1861: I had thought that if there were ever a phrenological science, it would be the phrenolo

21、gy of convolutions (in the cortex), and not the phrenology of bumps (on the head). The conclude came from the studies of aphasia; one of the most exciting chapters in the study of human behavior. Broca founded a new science neuropsychology. The origin of neuroscience Brocas area Brian of Leborgne Le

22、borgne, a patient with motor aphasia, symptoms, and a lesion in the posterior region of the frontal lobe i.e. Brocas area. And 8 more patients, the lesion for all cases was located on the left cerebral hemisphere. Announced in 1864 one of the most famous principles of brain function: We speak with t

23、he left hemisphere! The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience Solid experimental support from Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig (German physiologists) quickly followed in 1870: the electrical localization of the motor areas of the cerebrum in dogs. Scottish neurologist David Ferrier showe

24、d that removal of this same region of the cerebrum causes paralysis of the muscles in monkeys in 1881. German physiologist Hermann Munk using experimental ablation presented evidence that the occipital lobe (枕叶) of the cerebrum was specifically required for vision (视 觉). The origin of neuroscience M

25、ovement Perception The American Crowbar CasePhineas Gage (1823-1860) The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience A process of natural selection Today, scientific evidence ranging from anthropology to molecular genetics overwhelmingly supports the theory of evolution by natural selection. 神

26、经系统的进化 Charles Darwin (18091882) In 1895 On the Origin of Species published 海豹 浣熊 狗 The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience The origin of neuroscience Behavior, a heritable trait that could evolve. For example, similar fear reaction

27、 for many different species (the same behavioral trait) which evolved from a common ancestor. Advantageous presumably because it facilitated escape from predators. Because behavior reflects the activity of the nervous system, we can infer that the brain mechanisms that underlie this fear reaction ma

28、y be similar across these species. The origin of neuroscience The nervous systems of different species evolved from common ancestors and may have common mechanisms. Thus, the results of animal experiments related to humans. 例：抢乌贼巨大轴突，神经电冲动传导，适用于人类 Most neuroscientists today use animal models to exam

29、ine the process they wish to understand in humans. 例：如大鼠有机会重复自我摄取可卡因，也会明显成瘾。 因此，大鼠模型对研究成瘾药物对神经系统作用很有价值。 rat self-administer The origin of neuroscience On the other hand, many behavioral traits are highly specialized for the environment (or niche) a species normally occupies. . 例：猴在树梢上跳跃与敏锐视觉，大鼠虽然“鼠目

30、寸光” 在洞中穿行与嘴边的触须。 因而，每一物种脑的结构和功能都反映了各自对环境 的适应，通过比较不同物种的脑，可以得知不同脑区所具 有的特定行为功能。 恒河猴的视觉感知 大鼠的面部触觉感知 The origin of neuroscience 神经元：脑的基本功能单位 Camillo Golgi (1843-1926) staining of neurons with silver (1906 Nobel Price) Remon Cajal (1852-1934) Spanish histologist. a network of discrete neurons, established

31、 the neuron doctrine 神经元学说神经元学说 (1906 Nobel Price). The origin of neuroscience 神经元：脑的基本功能单位 Structure of cells in nervous tissue revealed by microscope. In 1839, German Theodor Schwann proposed the cell theory: All tissues are composed of microscopic units called cells. Initially, scientists could n

32、ot decide whether the processes from different cells fuse together like the blood vessels of the circulatory system. By 1900, the individual nerve cell, now called the neuron, was recognized to be the basic functional unit of the nervous system. The origin of neuroscience Neuron Number: 1011 Size: a

33、bout 30-50 mm Synapse number: 103/neuron Extremely Complex Network (Nerve System) Synapse：突触突触 Circuit：环路环路 The origin of neuroscience Current views about nerve cells, the the brain, and the behavior Anatomy, embryology, Physiology, Pharmacology, Psychology More than 100 years Neuroscience Today Neu

34、roscience Today 研究的层次 Molecular Neuroscience Cellular Neuroscience Systems Neuroscience Behavioral Neuroscience Cognitive Neuroscience To reduce the complexity of the problem, neuroscientists break it into smaller pieces for systematic experimental analysis. This is called the reductionist approach.

35、 Neuroscience Today Molecular Neuroscience The brain has been called the most complex piece of matter in the universe. Brain matter consists of a fantastic variety of molecules, many of which are unique to the nervous system. These different molecules play many different roles that are crucial for b

36、rain function: messengers 信使 sentries 卫兵 conductors 向导 archivists 档案管理员 Neuroscience Today Cellular Neuroscience Focuses on studying how all those molecules work together to give the neuron its special properties. How many different types of neurons are there? How do they differ in function? How do

37、neurons influence other neurons? How do neurons become wired together during fetal development? How do neurons perform computations? Neuroscience Today Systems Neuroscience Constellations of neurons form complex circuits that perform a common function: vision, for example, or voluntary movement. Thu

38、s, we can speak of the visual system and the motor system, each of which has its own distinct circuitry within the brain. At this level of analysis, called systems neuroscience, neuroscientists study how different neural circuits analyze sensory information, form perceptions of the external world, m

39、ake decisions, and execute movements. Neuroscience Today Behavioral Neuroscience How do neural systems work together to produce integrated behaviors? For example: Are different forms of memory accounted for by different systems? Where in the brain do mind-altering drugs act? What is the normal contr

40、ibution of these systems to the regulation of mood and behavior? What neural systems account for gender-specific behaviors? Where in the brain do dreams come from? Neuroscience Today Cognitive Neuroscience Perhaps the greatest challenge of neuroscience is understanding the neural mechanisms responsi

41、ble for the higher levels of human mental activity, such as self-awareness, mental imagery, and language. Research at this level, called cognitive neuroscience, studies how the activity of the brain creates the mind. Neuroscience Today 研究的层次 Molecular Neuroscience Cellular Neuroscience Systems Neuro

42、science Behavioral Neuroscience Cognitive Neuroscience To reduce the complexity of the problem, neuroscientists break it into smaller pieces for systematic experimental analysis. This is called the reductionist approach. 单细胞单细胞 多细胞多细胞 神经网络神经网络 分子分子 神经系统神经系统 行为心理行为心理 脑研究的不同层次脑研究的不同层次 Neuroscience Tod

43、ay Neuroscience Today 研究的步骤 Observation 观察 Replication 重复 Interpretation 解释 Verification 验证 Neuroscience Today 神经科学研究中的动物使用问题 Animal welfare; Animal rights about the ethics of animal research Today, neuroscientists accept certain moral responsibilities toward their animal subjects: 1. Animals are us

44、ed only for worthwhile experiments that promise to advance our knowledge of the nervous system. 2. All necessary steps are taken to minimize pain and distress experienced by the experimental animals (use of anesthetics, analgesics, etc.). 3. All possible alternatives to the use of animals are consid

45、ered. Neuroscience Today 神经科学家 Types of Experimental Neuroscientists Neuroscience Today 神经系统疾病的危害 Some Major Disorders of the Nervous System 美国神经科学会网站有关神经科学历史的内容美国神经科学会网站有关神经科学历史的内容 http:/www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=HistoryofNeuroscience_main History of Neuroscience Autobiographical Chapters - A

46、 six-volume book series detailing the lives and discoveries of eminent senior neuroscientists. Available for download (PDFs). Autobiographical Videos - Archival interviews with distinguished senior neuroscientists. Classic Papers - A sample of high impact classic papers addressing a range of neurosc

47、ience topics. Available for download (PDFs). History Resources - A list of neuroscience history resources beyond SfN. SfN Presidents - View a list of SfN presidents, photos and years of service included. Download Robert W. Dotys chapter on neuroscience (PDF, 2.4 MB) from The History of the APS: The First Century, 1887-1987.* 扩展阅读扩展阅读 1 1 2 2 神经科学的历史发展与思考神经科学的历史发展与思考 陈宜张著陈宜张著 上海科学技术出版社上海科学技术出版社 20082008年第一版年第一版 （有关于中国神经科学历史的内容） 谢谢！谢谢！ 神经元及其静息态的膜特性 Brain: 1012 neurons Behavior 细菌的化学趋向和规避智能的雏形 大肠杆菌能感受麦芽糖浓度梯度 感受（受体） 比较（记忆） 执行（效应器） 智能的基本形式：感受 判断 决定 信息