语用学(英语)课件.ppt

1、Pragmatic PresuppositionIntroduction of presuppositionTypes of presuppositionCharacteristics of presupposition123Presupposition triggers4methodology5Entailment and presupposition The differences between themPresupposition-is something the speaker assumes to be case prior to making an utterance -Spea

2、ker,not sentence,have presupposition.-Speaker assumes it is known by listeners.Entailment-is sth that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance.-Sentences,not speakers,have entailments.How to distinguish them?a entails b on two conditions:If a is true,b is true.If a is false,b is true

3、,or b is false.a presupposes b on two conditions:If a is true,b is true.If a is false,b is still true.In many discussion of the concept,presupposition is treated as relationship between two propositions.If we say that the sentence in(1)contains the proposition p and the sentence in(2)contains the pr

4、oposition q,then,using the symbol to mean presuppose,we can represent the relationship as in(3).(1)Marys dog is cute.(=p)(2)Mary has a dog.(=q)(3)p q When we produce the opposite of the sentence in(1)by negating it(=NOT p),as in(3),we find that the relationship of presupposition doesnt change.That i

5、s,the same proposition q,repeated as(4),continues to be presupposed by NOT p,as shown in(5).(3)Marys dog isnt cute.(=NOT p)(4)Mary has a dog.(=q)(5)NOT p q constant under negation 1.a.John is married.a b b.John exists.-presupposition c.John is not married.c b 2.a.John managed to stop the car.a b&c b

6、.John stopped the car.c.John tried to stop the car.d.John did not manage to stop the car.d c b is the entailment of a.c is the presupposition of a.-a c Marys brother bought three horses.The speaker has the following presuppositions:A person called Mary exists.She has a brother.Mary has only one brot

7、her.All are the speakers and He has a lot of money.All can be wrong.The sentence has entailment:Marys brother bought something.He bought three animals.He bought two horses.He bought one horse.many other logical consequences.These entailments follow from the sentence,regardless of whether the speaker

8、s beliefs are right or wrong.They are communicated without being said.Types of presupposition Generally speaking,there are two kinds of presupposition:semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition 1.Existential presupposition:2.Factive presupposition:3.Non-factive presupposition 4.Lexical pre

9、supposition 5.Structural presupposition 6.Counterfactual presuppositionPragmatic presupposition When sentences or propositions are put to use in context,however,we are more concerned with how speakers or writers make use of presupposition as a way of communicating implicit meaning.Speakers,not sente

10、nces or propositions,have pragmatic presuppositions.a.My brother is a linguist.b.I have a brother.Suppose that John utters the sentence a in a context.Then,he,not the sentence or proposition a,pragmatically presupposes the sentence b.The information pragmatically presupposed by the speaker must be s

11、hared by the hearer.This property of pragmatic presupposition is called common ground or mutual knowledge requirement.a.My brother is a linguist.b.I have a brother.Suppose that John says a to Mary.When he utters it,he assumes that Mary knows that he has a brother.Thus,when the speaker of an utteranc

12、e p pragmatically presupposes some information q,p is appropriate only if q is mutually known to both the speaker and the hearer.The appropriateness of felicity of pragmatic presupposition:suppose A says“please shut the door.to B.It depends on:Relationship between participants Hearers ability to shu

13、t the door Fact that the door is open and the speaker wants the door closed The felicity condition of pragmatic presuppositions is context-sensitive and bears tightly on the appropriateness of speech acts:Will you open the door?Here,the speaker presupposes that the door is closed.If it is manifest t

14、o the hearer that the door is open,the presupposition is infelicitous.Moreover,the speech act will not by performed,either.Unlike semantic presupposition which is related to truth value conditions of a proposition,pragmaticpresupposition is related to felicity conditions of utterances.Cancelation of

15、 presupposition Since pragmatic presupposition is context-sensitive,then it is cancelled or defeated in some contexts.(1)At least John wont have to regret that he did a Ph.D.(2)John did a Ph.D.(1)(2)But if(1)is uttered when John has just failed to get into a doctoral course,then it will not have tha

16、t presupposition.The situational context,the background knowledge,is in direct contradiction to the presupposition.In other words,it is cancelled,defeated,by the context,the background knowledge.A presupposition may be also cancelled by a linguistic context.You say that someone in this room will bet

17、ray you.Well maybe so.But it wont be Luke who will betray you,it wont be Paul,it wont be Matthew,and it certainly wont be John.Therefore no one in this room is actually going to betray you.Presupposition triggers In the analysis of how speakers assumptions are typically expressed,presupposition has

18、been associated with the use of a large number of words,phrases,and structures,known as presupposition-triggers.In his Pragmatics(pp.181-4),Levinson on the basis of Karttunen(31 types)lists 13 types of them,which he regards as the set of core phenomena,reproduced here with simplification and some ot

19、her modifications.Definite descriptions(确定性的描述)the/this/that+NP,the 3rd person pronoun,and possessive+n give definite descriptions associated with presuppositions of existence.*John got married last week.There existed a person called John.The team of explorers got lost in the jungles.There was a tea

20、m of explorers.This house was once owned by a rich merchant.There once existed a house.Factive verbs(实情动词实情动词)-sth has happened.regret,realize,know,be aware that,be sorry that,be glad that,be proud that,be pleased that,be odd,be strange,be disappointed that John realized that he had made a mistake.J

21、ohn made a mistake.He regretted having started the project.He started the project.Im sorry that your dog died.Your dog died.Implicative verbs(含蓄动词含蓄动词)manage,forget,happen,avoid,etc.He managed to get the ticket.He tried to get the ticket.I forget to bring the book.I ought to have brought the book.We

22、 happened to meet our neighbor in the cinema.We did not expect to meet our neighbor in the cinema.Change of state verbs(表示状态改变的动词)finish,stop,begin,start,carry on,continue,cease,leave,arrive,enter,come,go,turn,transform,etc.He stopped/didnt stop smoking cigars.He had been smoking cigars.It began to

23、snow at midnight.It did not snow before midnight.The guests arrived at 6.The guests were not here before 6.Iteratives(表反复的词语)repeat,back,again,too,another time,any more,etc.The spaceship came back to earth.The spaceship had been on earth.He promised to ring/didnt promise to ring again.He had rung be

24、fore.Order was restored.There had been order before.Im visiting China for the third time.I have visited China twice before.Verbs of judging(判断性动词)accuse,charge,criticize,etc.Peter accused/didnt accuse Smith of forgery.Peter thinks forgery is bad.Mike criticized Mary for backing out at the last minut

25、e.Mary backed out at the last minute.Temporal clauses(时间状语从句)before,after,since,etc.After his father died he stepped into a large fortune.His father died.Since the new cabinet was formed,there have been a lot of reforms in the country.Anew cabinet was formed.While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguis

26、tics,the rest of social science was/wasnt asleep.Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics.Cleft sentence(断裂句断裂句)It is that/who what.It was John who danced the last dance with Mary.Someone danced the last dance with Mary.It was in a certain place that they got in touch with each other.They got in touc

27、h with each other in a certain place.It was/wasnt Herry that kissed Rosie.Someone kissed Rosie.What I lost is my passport.I lost something.non-restrictive attributive clauses(非限定性定语从句)John,who visited China last year,is fond of Chinese tea.John has been to China twice.The island of Japan,which are l

28、ocated to the east of China,have frequently been struck by earthquakes of varying forces.The island of Japan are located to the east of China.Counterfactual conditionals(与事实相反的条件句)If Hannibal had only had twelve more elephants,the Romance languages would/wouldnt this day exist.Hannibal didnt have tw

29、elve more language.If I had not burnt the cake,we would be having it for tea.I burnt the cake.If Columbus had not discovered America,someone else would.Columbus discovered America Questions(疑问句疑问句)Is there a piano in the room?Either there is a piano in the room or there is not a piano in the room.Do

30、es he speak English or French?He speaks either English or French.What can you expect?You are expecting something.Marked stressJohn FLEW to Nanjing yesterday.John went to Nanjing by some means yesterday.Jonh doesnt like THIS way of flattery.John likes some other ways of flattery.Structures and expres

31、sions indicating comparison(表比较的结构与表达)?Marianne called Adolph a male chauvinist,and then HE insulted HER.For Marianne to call Adolph a male chauvinist would be to insult him.Carol is a better pianist than Mike.Mike is a pianist.This essay is as good as the one you wrote last time.You wrote an good essay last time.Thank You!