SLA二语习得重要问题总结.docx

1、SLA 期末考试提纲Week 9Chapter 1 Introducing Second Language Acquisition Chapter 2 Foundations of Second Language AcquisitionPART ONE: Definition:1. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their fir

2、st one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classrooms.3. Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts.4. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired na

3、turally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a childs family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.5. Second language (L2): In its general sense, this term refers to any language that is acquired after the first language

4、has been established. In its specific sense, this term typically refers to an additional language which is learned within a context where it is societally dominant and needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. The more specific sense contrasts with foreign language, library languag

5、e, auxiliary (帮助的，辅助的) language, and language for specific purposes.6. Target language: The language that is the aim or goal of learning.7. Foreign language: A second language that is not widely used in the learners immediate social context, but rather one that might be used for future travel or oth

6、er cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.8. Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books and journals in

7、a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners L1.9. Auxiliary language: A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language

8、serves most other needs in their lives.10. Linguistic competence: The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.11. Linguistic performance: The use of language knowledge in actual production.12. Communicative competence: A b

9、asic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003)13. Pragmatic competence: Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situati

10、ons.14. Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.15. Monolingualism: The ability to use only one language.16. Simultaneous multilingualism: Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.17. Sequential multilingualism: Ability to use one or more lan

11、guages that were learned after L1 had already been established.18. Innate capacity: A natural ability, usually referring to childrens natural ability to learn or acquire language.19. Child grammar: Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of production and com

12、prehension.20. Initial state: The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.21. Intermediate state: It includes the maturational changes whic

13、h take place in “child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.22. Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.23. Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.24. Neg

14、ative transfer: Inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.25. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: The argument that because language input to children is impoverished and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.26. Structuralism: T

15、he dominant linguistic model of the 1950s, which emphasized the description of different levels of production in speech.27. Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.28. Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sente

16、nces, such as ordering and agreement.29. Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.30. Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.31. Behaviorism: The most influential cognitive framework applied to language learning in the 1950s. It claims that learning is t

17、he result of habit formation.32. Audiolingual method: An approach to language teaching that emphasizes repetition and habit formation. This approach was widely practiced in much of the world until at least the 1980s.33. Transformational-Generative Grammar: The first linguistic framework with an inte

18、rnal focus, which revolutionized linguistic theory and had profound effect on both the study of first and second languages. Chomsky argued effectively that the behaviorist theory of language acquisition is wrong because it cannot explain the creative aspects of linguistic ability. Instead, humans mu

19、st have some innate capacity for language.34. Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomskys Transformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principle

20、s and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.35. Minimalist program: The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomskys Principles and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more

21、emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.36. Functionalism: A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School (布拉格学派) of Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information content

22、of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication. Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.37. Neurolinguistics: The study of the location and representation of language in the brain, of interest t

23、o biologists and psychologists since the nineteenth century and one of the first fields to influence cognitive perspectives on SLA when systematic study began in 1960s.38. Critical period: The limited number of years during which normal L1 acquisition is possible.39. Critical Period Hypothesis: The

24、claim that children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a ce

25、rtain age, normal language development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.40. Information processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning o

26、f other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.41. Connectionism: A cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from in

27、creasing strength of associations between stimuli and responses.42. Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.43. Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion t

28、hat speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.44. Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not only facilitates language lear

29、ning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.45. Ethnography(人种论、民族志) of communication: A framework for analysis of language and its functions that was established by Hymes(1966). It relates

30、 language use to broader social and cultural contexts, and applies ethnographic methods of data collection and interpretation to study of language acquisition and use.46. Acculturation(文化适应): Learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavior patterns.47. Acculturatio

31、n Model/Theory: Schumanns (1978) theory that identifies group factors such as identity and status which determine social and psychological distance between learner and target language populations. He claims these influence outcomes of SLA.48. Social psychology: A societal approach in research and th

32、eory that allows exploration of issues such as how identity, status, and values influence L2 outcomes and why. It has disciplinary ties to both psychological and social perspectives.PART TWO: Short & Long answers:Chapter 11. What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist

33、, sociolinguists and social psycholinguists P3（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of a

34、cquisition.（2）Psychologists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge

35、 that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.2. What are the differences between second language, foreign language

36、, library language and auxiliary language P4（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restric

37、ted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school,

38、but with no immediate or necessary practical application. ?（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners native tongue.（4）An auxiliary lang

39、uage is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives. 3. Why are some learners more (or less) successful than other P5The intrig

40、uing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distincti

41、ons based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and

42、social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.Chapter21. List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age. P10The motivation may arise from a v

43、ariety of conditions, including the following:l Invasion or conquest of ones country by speakers of another language;l A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;l Immigration to a country where use of a language other than ones L1 is required;l Ado

44、ption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;l A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language;l A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;l An interes

45、t in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.2. What are the two main factors that influence the language learning P13（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of

46、 social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other pos

47、sible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry w

48、ill never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interacti

49、on, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.3. What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively P17-18The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 compet