第三讲 文化.ppt

1、第二讲文化第二讲文化 Culture主讲人：范会芳2011.3 社会学概论社会学概论OutlinenWhat is Culture?nThe Characteristics of CulturenThe Types of CulturenThe Structure of CulturenThe Functions of Culture一、一、What is Culture?nCulture is an integral part of every society.It is a learned pattern of behavior and ways in which a person liv

2、es his or her life.Culture is essential for the existence of a society,because it binds people together.In the explicit sense of the term,culture constitutes the music,food,arts and literature of a society.However,these are only the products of culture followed by the society and cannot be defined a

3、s culture.nAccording to English Anthropologist Edward B Taylor,culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge,belief,art,law,morals,custom,and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.in his book,Primitive Culture,published in 1871.nCulture is something that a

4、 person learns from his family and surroundings,and is not ingrained in him from birth.It does not have any biological connection because even if a person is brought up in a culture different from that in which he was born,he imbibes the culture of the society where he grows up.It is also not a hidd

5、en fact that some people feel the need to follow the beliefs and traditions of their own culture,even though they might be not subscribing to certain ideologies within.nCulture is a complex tool which every individual has to learn to survive in a society.It is the means through which people interact

6、 with others in the society.It acts in a subconscious way and whatever we see and perceive,seems to be normal and natural.Sometimes,other societies and people seem to be a little odd because they have a different culture from ours.We must remember that every society has a distinct culture that forms

7、 the backbone of the society.Culture does not remain stagnant,on the other hand it is evolving constantly and is in fact somewhat influenced by the other cultures and societies.nEvery society has a different culture,where people share a specific language,traditions,behaviors,perceptions and beliefs.

8、Culture gives them an identity which makes them unique and different from people of other cultures.When people of different cultures migrate and settle in another society,the culture of that society becomes the dominant culture and those of the immigrants form the subculture of the community.Usually

9、,people who settle in other nations imbibe the new culture,while at the same time strive to preserve their own.nAlthough every society has a specific culture,there are certain elements of culture that are universal.They are known as cultural universals,in which there are certain behavioral traits an

10、d patterns that are shared by all cultures around the world.For instance,classifying relations based on blood relations and marriage,differentiating between good and bad,having some form of art,use of jewelry,classifying people according to gender and age,etc.,are common in all cultures of the world

11、.nSome people believe that humans are the only living beings who have a culture.But,there is a group of people who believe in the existence of culture even in animals.It is said that animals have certain social rules which they teach their young ones as a medium for survival.nCulture is necessary to

12、 establish an order and discipline in the society.It is not only a means of communication between people,but also creates a feeling of belonging and togetherness among people in the society.nCulture is a thin but very important veneer that you must be careful not to scratch.People from different cul

13、tures are basically the same and respond in the same way.However,make sure that you understand their basic customs and show an interest and willingness to learn the differences between your cultures.Mike WillsnCulture is the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas.E.Sc

14、heinnCulture is the fabric of meaning in terms of which human beings interpret their experience and guide their action.Clifford GeertznCulture refers to the following Ways of Life,including but not limited to:nLanguage:the oldest human institution and the most sophisticated medium of expression.nArt

15、s&Sciences:the most advanced and refined forms of human expression.nThought:the ways in which people perceive,interpret,and understand the world around them.nSpirituality:the value system transmitted through generations for the inner well-being of human beings,expressed through language and actions.

16、nSocial activity:the shared pursuits within a cultural community,demonstrated in a variety of festivities and life-celebrating events.nInteraction:the social aspects of human contact,including the give-and-take of socialization,negotiation,protocol,and conventions.nAll of the above collectively defi

17、ne the meaning of Culture.Layers of Culture n There are very likely three layers or levels of culture that are part of your learned behavior patterns and perceptions.Most obviously is the body of cultural traditions that distinguish your specific society.When people speak of Italian,Samoan,or Japane

18、se culture,they are referring to the shared language,traditions,and beliefs that set each of these peoples apart from others.In most cases,those who share your culture do so because they acquired it as they were raised by parents and other family members who have it.nThe second layer of culture that

19、 may be part of your identity is a subculture .n In complex,diverse societies in which people have come from many different parts of the world,they often retain much of their original cultural traditions.n As a result,they are likely to be part of an identifiable subculture in their new society.The

20、shared cultural traits of subcultures set them apart from the rest of their society.Examples of easily identifiable subcultures in the United States include ethnic groups such as Vietnamese Americans,African Americans,and Mexican Americans.Members of each of these subcultures share a common identity

21、,food tradition,dialect or language,and other cultural traits that come from their common ancestral background and experience.nAs the cultural differences between members of a subculture and the dominant national culture blur and eventually disappear,the subculture ceases to exist except as a group

22、of people who claim a common ancestry.That is generally the case with German Americans and Irish Americans in the United States today.Most of them identify themselves as Americans first.They also see themselves as being part of the cultural mainstream of the nation.nThe third layer of culture consis

23、ts of cultural universals.nThese are learned behavior patterns that are shared by all of humanity collectively.No matter where people live in the world,they share these universal traits.Examples of such human cultural traits include:municating with a verbal language consisting of a limited set of so

24、unds and grammatical rules for constructing sentencesn 2.using age and gender to classify people(e.g.,teenager,senior citizen,woman,man)n3.classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and having kinship terms to refer tothem(e.g.,wife,mother,uncle,cousin)n4.raising children in some

25、 sort of family settingn 5.having a sexual division of labor(e.g.,mens work versus womens work)n6.having a concept of privacy n7.having rules to regulate sexual behaviorn8.distinguishing between good and bad behavior n9.having some sort of body ornamentationn10.making jokes and playing gamesn11.havi

26、ng artn12.having some sort of leadership roles for the implementation of community decisionsn n文化的涵义（The implication of culture）n社会学认为，人类社会生活的一切方面，包括生产资料、生活资料、社会化、社会互动、社会群体、社会制度、社会变迁等，都可以归结为是各种文化现象。n文化，英文Culture,这个词源于拉丁语，愿意为：耕耘、耕作。从其最初的含义上看，就有人们对自然界的开拓之间。定义：文化是与自然现象不同的人类社会生活的全部成果，它包括人类所创造的一切物质与非特的东西

27、。换言之，自然界本无文化，凡经人“耕耘”的一切均为文化。斯洛伐克克农民正在使用传统方式斯洛伐克克农民正在使用传统方式马拉犁耙翻作农田马拉犁耙翻作农田二、文化的特征n1、文化具有超生理性和超个人性。所谓文化的超生理性指任何文化都是人们后天习得和创造的，文化不能通过生理遗传。所谓文化的超个人性，指个人虽有接受文化和创造文化的能力，但是形成文化的力量不在于个人，只有在个人与他人的互动中，才会产生文化。n2、文化的复合性。任何一种文化都不是孤立存在的，而由多种文化要素复合在一起。n3、文化的象征性。象征性是指文化现象总是具有广泛的意义，文化的意义要远远超出文化现象所直接表现的那个狭窄的范围。n4、文化

28、的传递性。传递性是指文化一经产生就要被他人模仿、效法、利用。分为纵向传递和横向传递。前者是指人类将文化一代一代地传下去，在社会学上又称为“社会化”。后者是指文化在不同地域、民族之间的传递。n5、文化的变迁性。文化不是静止不动的，而是时刻在流传中演变的。n文化堕距（culture lag,亦作文化滞后)，是指由相互依赖的各部分组成的文化在发生变迁时，因各部分变迁的速度不一致而在各部分之间产生的不平衡、差距、错位，以及相关的社会问题。Characteristics of CulturenCulture is learnedn Culture is shared nculture is cumula

29、tive ncultures change nculture is dynamic nculture is ideational nculture is diverse nculture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns Culture is learnednHuman infants come into the world with basic drives such as hunger and thirst,but they do not possess instinctive patterns of behavior to

30、 satisfy them.Likewise,they are without any cultural knowledge.However,they are genetically predisposed to rapidly learn language and other cultural traits.New born humans are amazing learning machines.Any normal baby can be placed into any family on earth and grow up to learn their culture and acce

31、pt it as his or her own.Since culture is non-instinctive,we are not genetically programmed to learn a particular one.culture is shared by a group of peoplenCulture is shared,by which we mean that every culture is shared by a group of people.Depending on the region they live in,the climatic condition

32、s they thrive in and their historical heritage,they form a set of values and beliefs.This set of their principles of life shapes their culture.No culture belongs to an individual.It is rather shared among many people of a certain part of the world.It belongs to a single community and not to any sing

33、le human being.culture is cumulative nDifferent knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one generation to another generation.More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as time passes by.Each may work out solutions to problems in life that passes from one generation to anothe

34、r.This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.nCultural evolution is due to the cumulative effect of culture.We now understand that the time between major cultural inventions has become steadily shorter,especially since the invention of agriculture 8,000-10,000 years ago.The progress

35、ively larger human population after that time was very likely both a consequence and a cause of accelerating culture growth.The more people there are,the more likely new ideas and information will accumulate.n nIf those ideas result in a larger,more secure food supplies,the population will inevitabl

36、y grow.In a sense,culture has been the human solution to surviving changing environments,but it has continuously compounded the problem by making it possible for more humans to stay alive.In other words,human cultural evolution can be seen as solving a problem that causes the same problem again and

37、again.The ultimate cost of success of cultural technology has been a need to produce more and more food for more and more people.Parallel Growth of the Human Population and Cultural Technologyn nThe invention of agriculture made it possible for our ancestors to have a more controllable and,subsequen

38、tly,dependable food supply.It also resulted in settling down in permanent communities.This in turn set the stage for further developments in technology and political organization.The inevitable result was more intensive agriculture,new kinds of social and political systems dominated by emerging elit

39、e classes,the first cities,and ultimately the industrial and information revolutions of modern times.nCity life brought with it the unexpected consequence of increased rates of contagious diseases.Large,dense populations of people make it much easier for viruses,bacteria,and other disease causing mi

40、croorganisms to spread from host to host.As a result,most cities in the past were periodically devastated by epidemics.Cultures Change/All cultures change over time nAll cultural knowledge does not perpetually accumulate.At the same time that new cultural traits are added,some old ones are lost beca

41、use they are no longer useful.nFor example,most city dwellers today do not have or need the skills required for survival in a wilderness.Most would very likely starve to death because they do not know how to acquire wild foods and survive the extremes of weather outdoors.What is more important in mo

42、dern urban life are such things as the ability to drive a car,use a computer,and understand how to obtain food in a supermarket or restaurant.culture is dynamic”.nIt was considered that there is no culture remains on the permanent state.Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques

43、are added in time modifying or changing the old ways.This is the characteristic of culture that stems from the cultures cumulative quality.culture is ideational nThe sixth characteristic of culture is that“culture is ideational”.Culture forms ideal pattern of behaviors that followed by individuals e

44、xpectedly.It serves as guidelines that must be followed by members to gain social acceptance from the people with the same culture.culture is diverse nIt was considered that culture was formed by many separate cultures.It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts.Although these part

45、s are separate,they are interdependent with one another forming culture as a whole.culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns nCulture provides us with the norms of appropriate behavioral patterns.It involves how an activity should be conducted,how an individual should appropriately a

46、ct,as husband,wife,parents,child,and others.It tells us how to dress based on gender,occasions,statue and many more.Conservative Muslim women in the Middle East.They are fully covered for modesty in public and are being escorted by a male relative SupplementnCulture Is An Adaptive Mechanism nPeople

47、Usually are not Aware of Their Culture nWe Do Not Know All of Our Own Culture nCultures No Longer Exist in Isolation nQuestion:what do you think about the charecterics of culture?Please give your own opinion and reason.三、文化的类型n1、物质文化与非物质文化n前者是指物质世界中，一切经过人的加工、体现了人的思想的东西;后者，又称精神文化，是指制度、规范、价值、观念等。n2、主文

48、化与亚文化n主文化是在社会占主导地位的，为社会上多数人所接受的文化；亚文化是指仅为社会上一部分成员所接受的或为某一社会群体特有的文化。亚文化一般并不与主文化相抵触。n3主文化与反文化n主文化是指在社会上占据主导地位，对现在社会秩序起着维持作用的;反文化是指对现在秩序背离和否定、对现在主文化抵制和对抗的亚文化。n这是根据文化在社会中的地位、作用，从对立、冲突的角度对文化作的区分。而主文化与亚文化则是根据文化在社会中所占据的数量规模、广泛程度作的区分。n4、评比性文化与非评比性文化n前者是指有好坏、高下之分的文化，即在两种文化的比较中，可以评比出孰优孰劣的文化;是比较容易鉴别其价值的文化。后者是指

49、在文化比较中没有明显优劣、高下之分的文化，也作中性文化。一般来说，中性文化是民族分野的重要标志，它有助于维系社会的团结与稳定，有助于增强社会的内聚力。评比性文化示例不同地区的交通工具现代高速列车现代高速列车传统的牛车传统的牛车非评比性文化示例不同民族的饮食就餐方式中餐的筷子中餐的筷子西餐的刀叉西餐的刀叉四、文化的结构n文化所构成的系统或体系所表现的不同层次，就是文化结构。社会学主要从文化特质、文化丛、文化模式三个层次上分析文化的结构。n1、文化特质、文化丛与文化模式nA、文化特质（cultural traits），是构成文化的基本要素或最小单位。一个社会的文化内容就是其各种文化特质的总和。文化

50、特质的特点是，每种特质都可以独自成为一个单位，有其特殊的历史和形式，不传经与其他特质相混淆。当然，文化特质仅是社会学研究中的一种特定的地位，其界限是相对的，常研究者的目标的而设定界限。nB、文化丛（cultural cluster），是指因功能上相互联系而组合成的一组文化特质。它往往与人们的某种特定活动有关，而且往往是物质文化和非物质文化的特殊结合。n文化特质和文化丛构成了文化的基本内容。nC、文化模式（cultural pattern），是一个社会中所有文化内容（包括文化特质与文化丛）组合在一起的特殊形式和结构。在文化模式研究中，有特殊文化模式与普遍文化模式之分。n特殊文化模式是指不同的国家