5 - Categorical syllogism.ppt
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- Categorical syllogism
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1、1Syllogism A syllogism is a two-premise deductive argument.Or,a categorical syllogism is an argument in which both the premises and the conclusion are categorical propositions.2 There are 3 propositions.There are 3 terms.Each term is used twice.None of the term is used twice in the same proposition.
2、3 All soldiers are patriots.No traitors are patriots.Therefore,no traitors are soldiers.4Major term Major term is the predicate of the conclusion.Soldiers5Minor term Minor term is the subject of the conclusion.Traitors6Middle term Middle term is the link between the two premises.It does not occur in
3、 the conclusion.Patriots7Major and minor premises The major premise is the premise that contains the major term:“All soldiers are patriots”.The minor premise is the premise that contains the minor term:“No traitors are patriots”.8Standard form The major premise is listed first,the minor premise seco
4、nd,and the conclusion last.Major premise Minor premise Conclusion9Mood The mood is the order of the type of propositions in a categorical syllogism.In the previous example,the mood is AEE.A is the type of the major premise,E for minor premise,the final E for the conclusion.10Figure The figure of a c
5、ategorical proposition is determined by the location of the two occurrences of the middle term in the premises.Therefore,there are 4 possible figures.11Figure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4M PS MS PP MS MS PM PM SS PP MM SS P12Positions of the 4 Sets of Middle Terms Remember the W-shaped figure13 Since t
6、here are four kinds of categorical propositions and three categorical propositions in each syllogism,we can have 64(4x4x4)possible moods.And since we have 4 possible figures,there are a total of 256 different forms(mood-figure)of categorical syllogism.14 If you can write out the form of a particular
7、 categorical syllogism,then you can check whether it is unconditionally valid or not.If we further require certain terms in the syllogism to refer to actually existing things,then we are concerned with conditional validity.15Unconditionally ValidFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4AAAEAEIAIAEEEAEAEEAIII
8、AIAIIEIOOAOEIOEIOAOOEIO16 Dont worry that you have to remember all the forms.You are simply required to understand the underlying principle.Just by knowing the mood-figure of a syllogism,we can check whether the syllogism is unconditionally valid or not.People like Aristotle have checked all 256 for
9、ms and recorded the results.So,in a way,you can refer to their results as if you are checking a periodic table.17 For beginners like you,you have to know how to determine the validity of a syllogism without the help of such reference.You can use Venn diagrams to judge case by case.18 This is an exam
10、ple of an unconditionally valid form:No painters are sculptors.Some sculptors are artists.Therefore,some artists are not painters.19Identify the major termNo painters are sculptors.Some sculptors are artists.Therefore,some artists are not painters.20Identify the minor termNo painters are sculptors.S
11、ome sculptors are artists.Therefore,some artists are not painters.21Identify middle term and figureNo painters are sculptors.Some sculptors are artists.Therefore,some artists are not painters.Make sure that the first premise contains the major term.By locating the middle term,we know the figure is 4
12、.22Determine the moodNo painters are sculptors.(E)Some sculptors are artists.(I)Therefore,some artists are not painters.(O)23 Since we have got the figure and the mood of the syllogism,we can label the syllogism as EIO-4.By crosschecking the result provided,we immediately see that the syllogism is u
13、nconditionally valid.24Venn Diagrams Again Venn diagrams are useful for testing the validity of categorical syllogisms.As mentioned,we are only dealing with three terms and that each proposition contains two terms,we are only required to draw 3 circles.In practice,we never draw more than 3 circles e
14、ven for problems that involve more than three terms(see the later section on sorites).25 Each specific area of the three circles gives us certain information of the membership relation between the three types of things mentioned.By using the learnt techniques to label each area one by one,we can see
15、 whether the syllogism is valid or not.26Procedures Draw three circles:the first two is like the ones we have drawn before,with the right-hand side one labeling the major term,the left-hand side one labeling the minor term.The third circle is put on top of the bottom two,labeling the middle term.27P
16、lacing of the circles Middle term Minor term Major term28 Shading or placing an X are done in the same way as before,with certain minor details to note.We draw two separate Venn diagrams for the premises and the conclusion.And see whether the diagram of the premises covers the diagram of the conclus
17、ion.If this is so,the argument is valid.Otherwise,it is invalid.29 Diagram the universal premise first if one premise is universal and the other particular.If both premises are universal or both are particular,it does not matter which one you draw first.When entering the information,always concentra
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