大学精品课件：专业英语Section I.ppt

1、Section I Practice Reading Skills by Reading the Materials Related to Pharmaceutical ScienceHistory of MedicineAncient TimesPrehistoric skulls found in Europe and South America indicate that Neolithic（新石器时代）（新石器时代）man was already able to trephine,or remove disks of bone from the skull successfully,b

2、ut whether this delicate operation was performed to release evil spirits or as a surgical procedure is not known.Empirical medicine developed in ancient Egypt,and involved the use of many potent drugs still in use today,such as castor oil,senna(番泻树番泻树),opium,colchicine,and mercury.In spite of their

3、skill in embalming,however,the Egyptians had little knowledge of anatomy.anatomy:the bodily structure of a plant or an animal or of any of its parts.分解：动植物及其身体部分的结构分解：动植物及其身体部分的结构；the science of the shape and structure of organisms and their parts.解剖学：研究有机物及组成部分形状和解剖学：研究有机物及组成部分形状和结构的科学结构的科学In Sumer

4、ian medicine(苏美尔医学苏美尔医学)the Laws of Hammurabi(汉谟拉比法典汉谟拉比法典)established the first known code of medical ethics,and laid down a fee schedule(收费标准收费标准)for specific surgical procedures.In ancient Babylonia,every man considered himself a physician and,according to Herodotus,gave advice freely to the sick

5、 man who was willing to exhibit himself to passersby in the public square.The Mosaic Code(摩西法典摩西法典)of the Hebrews(希伯希伯来书来书)indicated concerns with social hygiene(社会卫社会卫生）生）and prevention of disease by dietary restrictions and sanitary measures（卫生措施）（卫生措施）.hygiene:the science that deals with the prom

6、otion and preservation of health,also called hygienics 卫生学卫生学：关于提高健康水平或保持健康的一门科学也作：关于提高健康水平或保持健康的一门科学也作hygienics；hygiene in the workplace;personal hygiene.工作环境保健；个人保健工作环境保健；个人保健sanitary:of or relating to health.健康的：健康的或相健康的：健康的或相关的；关的；free from elements,such as filth or pathogens,that endanger healt

7、h;hygienic；清洁的：不受对健康有；清洁的：不受对健康有害的如污物或病原体等因素影响的；卫生的害的如污物或病原体等因素影响的；卫生的Although ancient Chinese medicine was also influenced adversely by the awe（敬畏）敬畏）felt for the sanctity of the human body,the Nei Ching（内经）（内经）,attributed to the emperor Huang-Ti(2698-2598 B.C.),contains a reference to a theory of

8、the circulation of the blood and the vital function of the heart that suggests familiarity with anatomy.In addition,accurate location of the proper points for the traditional Chinese practice of acupuncture(针灸针灸)implies some familiarity with the nervous and vascular systems.The Chinese pharmacopoeia

9、(药典）药典）was the most extensive of all the older civilizations.The Hindus(印度人）印度人）seem to have been familiar w i t h m a n y s u r g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s,demonstrating skill in such techniques as nose reconstruction(rhinoplasty)and cutting for removal of bladder（膀胱）（膀胱）stones.In Greek medicine

10、the impetus（推动力）（推动力）for the rational approach came largely from the speculations of the pre-Socratic philosophers and such philosopher-scientists as Pythagoras,Democritus,and Empedocles.Hippocrates,he emphasized careful observation of the patient,the recuperative（使恢复）（使恢复）powers of nature,and a hig

11、h standard of ethical conduct,as incorporated in the Hippocratic Oath.By the 4th Cent.B.C.,Aristotle had already stimulated interest in anatomy by his dissections of animals,and work in the 3d cent.B.C.on human anatomy and physiology was of such high quality that it was not equaled for fifteen hundr

12、ed years.The Romans advanced public health and sanitation through the construction of aqueducts（沟渠，导水（沟渠，导水管）管）,baths,sewers,and hospitals.The encyclopedic（百科全书）（百科全书）writings of Galen constitute a final synthesis of the medicine of the ancient world.Revered（尊敬）（尊敬）by Arabic and Western physicians a

13、like,his concepts stood virtually unchallenged until the 16th cent.Unfortunately,his prolific（大量的（大量的,丰富的）丰富的）researches on anatomy and physiology were not invariably accurate,and reliance（信心）（信心）on them impeded subsequent progress in anatomy.The Middle Ages With the destruction or neglect of the Ro

14、man sanitary facilities,there followed a series of local epidemics that culminated many centuries later in the great plague of the 14th cent.known as the Black Death.During the Middle Ages certain monastic（修道士）修道士）libraries,notably those at Monte Cassino,Bobbio,and St.Gall,preserved a few ancient me

15、dical manuscripts,and Arab and Jewish physicians such as Avicenna and Maimonides continued medical investigation.The first real light on modern medicine in Europe came with the translation of many writings from the Arabic at Salerno,Italy,and through a continuing trade and cultural exchange with Byz

16、antium.Salerno 萨勒诺（意大利城市）萨勒诺（意大利城市）Byzantium拜占庭拜占庭By the 13th cent.there were flourishing medical schools at Montpellier,Paris,Bologna and Padua,the latter being the site of production of the first accurate books on human anatomy.At Padua,Vesalius proved that Galen had made anatomical mistakes.flour

17、ishing 繁荣繁荣，繁茂繁茂，茂盛茂盛Montpellier 蒙彼利埃（法国南部城市）蒙彼利埃（法国南部城市）Bologna 博洛尼亚（意大利城市）博洛尼亚（意大利城市）Padua pdju 帕多瓦（意大利地名）帕多瓦（意大利地名）Prominent among those who pursued the new interest in experimental medicine were Paracelsus,Ambroise Par,and Fabricius,who discovered the valves of the veins（静脉瓣膜静脉瓣膜）.prominent:proj

18、ecting outward or upward from a line or surface;protuberant.突起的：从直线或平面向外或向上伸的；突起的：从直线或平面向外或向上伸的；突出的突出的pursue:to follow in an effort to overtake or capture;chase;追：为了赶上或捕获而努力跟随；追求；追：为了赶上或捕获而努力跟随；追求；e.g.a fox that was pursued by hounds.被猎狗追捕的狐狸被猎狗追捕的狐狸to strive to gain or accomplish:努力去获得或完成：努力去获得或完成：

19、In the 17th cent.William Harvey,using careful experimental methods,demonstrated the circulation of the blood,a concept that met with considerable early resistance.The introduction of quinine(奎宁，奎宁，金鸡纳碱金鸡纳碱)marked a triumph over malaria(疟疾疟疾),one of the oldest plagues of mankind.triumph：to be victori

20、ous or successful;win.获胜，获胜，成功，胜利成功，胜利malaria:is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by parasitic protozoans.疟疾；瘴气疟疾；瘴气The invention of the compound microscope(显微镜显微镜)led to the discovery of minute forms of life,and the discovery of the capillary(毛细管毛细管)system of t

21、he blood filled the final gap in Harveys explanation of blood circulation.In the 18th cent.the heart drug digitalis(洋地黄洋地黄)was introduced,scurvy(坏血病坏血病)was controlled,surgery was transformed into an experimental science,and reforms were instituted in mental institutions.scurvy:is a disease resulting

22、 from a deficiency of vitamin C,which is required for the synthesis of collagen in humans.坏血病坏血病surgery：uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition.手术手术In addition,Edward Jenner introduced vaccination to prevent smallpox(天花天花),l

23、aying the groundwork(奠定基础奠定基础)for the science of immunization.The 19th cent.saw the beginnings of modern medicine when Pasteur,Koch,Ehrlich and Semmelweis proved the relationships between germs and disease.Other invaluable developments included the use of disinfection(消毒，杀菌消毒，杀菌).vaccination：inocula

24、tion with a vaccine in order to protect against a particular disease.种痘，接种：为预种痘，接种：为预防某种病的种痘；防某种病的种痘；a scar left on the skin by vaccinating.牛痘疤：种牛痘后在皮肤上留下的疤牛痘疤：种牛痘后在皮肤上留下的疤germs:microscopic pathogens 微生物微生物Medicine in the 20th cent.received its impetus from Gerhard Domagk who discovered the first an

25、tibiotic(抗生素抗生素),sulfanilamide(磺胺磺胺),and the groundbreaking(开创性的开创性的)advancements in the use of penicillin(青霉素青霉素).Further progress has been characterized by the rise of chemotherapy(化学疗法化学疗法),especially the use of new antibiotics;increased understanding of the mechanisms of the immune system and th

26、e increased prophylactic(预防预防的的)use of vaccination;utilization of knowledge of the endocrine(内分泌内分泌)system to treat diseases resulting from hormone(激素激素)imbalance,such as the use of insulin(胰岛素胰岛素)to treat diabetes(糖尿病糖尿病);and increased understanding of nutrition and the role of vitamins in health.I

27、n March,1953,at Cambridge Univ.,England,Francis Crick,age 35,and James Watson,age 24,announced We have discovered the secret of life.Indeed,they had unraveled the chemical structure of the fundamental molecule of heredity(遗遗传传),deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA),giving science and medicine the basis for mol

28、ecular genetics(遗传遗传学学)and leading to a continuing revolution in modern medicine.deoxyribonucleic脱氧核糖核的脱氧核糖核的genetics:the study of genes,heredity,and genetic variation in living organism遗传学遗传学 Much medical research is now directed toward such problems as cancer,heart disease,AIDS,reemerging infectio

29、us diseases such as tuberculosis(TB)(肺结核肺结核；结核病；结核病)and dengue fever(登革热登革热),and organ transplantation.AIDS:acquried immune deficiency syndromeCurrently,the largest worldwide study is the Human Genome(基因组基因组)Project,which will identify all hereditary traits and body functions controlled by specific

30、areas on the chromosomes(染色体染色体).Gene therapy,the replacement of faulty genes,offers possible abatement of hereditary diseases.hereditary traits 遗传特性遗传特性chromosome:a packed and organized structure containing most of the DNA of a living organism 染色体染色体 hereditary：descending from an ancestor to a lega

31、l heir;passing down by inheritance.承袭的：祖先传给合法继承袭的：祖先传给合法继承人的；由继承传下来的承人的；由继承传下来的Genetic engineering has led to the development of important pharmaceutical products and the use of monoclonal antibodies,offering promising new approaches to cancer treatment.The discovery of growth factors has opened up

32、the possibility of growth and regeneration of nerve tissues.With the surge of general and specialized medical knowledge,the educational requirements of the medical profession have increased.In addition to the four-year medical course and the general hospital internship(实习医师实习医师)required almost every

33、where,additional years of study in a specialized field are usually required.Similar progress and increased requirements in education are reflected in ancillary(辅助的辅助的)professions such as nursing.Some knowledge of drug names can help in understanding drug product labels.Every drug has at least three

34、names:a chemical name,a generic(nonproprietary or official)name,and a trade(proprietary or brand)name.brand:A trademark or distinctive name identifying a product or a manufacturer.商标：标志一种产品或制造商标：标志一种产品或制造商的商标或特有名称；商的商标或特有名称；A product line so identified;品品牌：如此标识的产品系列：牌：如此标识的产品系列：Drug NameThe chemical

35、 name describes the atomic or molecular structure of the drug.This name is usually too complex and cumbersome（麻烦的，讨（麻烦的，讨厌的）厌的）for general use.So an official body assigns a generic name to a drug.The generic names for drugs of a particular type(class)usually have the same ending.For example,the name

36、s of all beta-blockers,which are used to treat such disorders as high blood pressure,end in lol.Drug DesignDrug design is the approach of finding drugs by design,based on their biological targets.Typically a drug target is a key molecule involved in a particular metabolic(代谢）代谢）or signalling pathway

37、（信号通路）（信号通路）that is specific to a disease condition or pathology（病理）（病理）,or to the infectivity or survival of a microbial pathogen（病原体）（病原体）.Some approaches attempt to stop the functioning of the pathway in the diseased state by causing a key molecule to stop functioning.Drugs may be designed that b

38、ind to the active region and inhibit this key molecule.However these drugs would also have to be designed in such a way as not to affect any other important molecules that may be similar in appearance to the key molecules.Sequence homologies（序列同源）（序列同源）are often used to identify such risks.Other app

39、roaches may be to enhance the normal pathway by promoting specific molecules in the normal pathways that may have been affected in the diseased state.The structure of the drug molecule that can specifically interact with the biomolecules can be modeled using computational tools.These tools can allow

40、 a drug molecule to be constructed within the biomolecule using knowledge of its structure and the nature of its active site.Construction of the drug molecule can be made inside out or outside in depending on whether the core or the R-groups are chosen first.However many of these approaches are plag

41、ued by the practical problems of chemical synthesis.Newer approaches have also suggested the use of drug molecules that are large and protein aceous（似蛋白质的，蛋白质的）似蛋白质的，蛋白质的）in nature rather than as small molecules.There have also been suggestions to make these using mRNA.Gene silencing（基因沉默（基因沉默）may a

42、lso have therapeutically applications.Unlike the historical method of drug discovery,by trial-and-error（反复试验）（反复试验）testing of chemical substances on animals,and matching the apparent effects to treatments,rational drug design begins with a knowledge of specific chemical responses in the body or targ

43、et organism,and tailoring combinations of these to fit a treatment profile.Due to the complexity of the drug design process two terms of interest are still serendipity（意外发现的）（意外发现的）and bounded rationality.Those challenges are caused by the large chemical space describing potential new drugs without

44、side-effects.A particular example of rational drug design involves the use of three-dimensional information about biomolecules obtained from such techniques as x-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy.This approach to drug discovery is sometimes referred to as structure-based drug design.The first

45、 unequivocal（明确的）（明确的）example of the application of structure-based drug design leading to an approved drug is the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor（碳酸酐酶抑制剂）碳酸酐酶抑制剂）dorzolamide（多佐胺）多佐胺）which was approved in 1995.Another important case study in rational drug design is imatinib(伊马替尼伊马替尼),a tyrosine kinase(

46、酪氨酪氨酸激酶酸激酶)inhibitor designed specifically for the bcr-abl fusion protein(融合蛋白融合蛋白)that is characteristic for Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias(费费城染色体阳性白血病城染色体阳性白血病)(chronic myelogenous(骨髓性骨髓性的的)leukemia(白血病白血病)and occasionally acute lymphocytic(淋巴细胞的淋巴细胞的)leukemia).Imatinib is substantiall

47、y different from previous drugs for cancer,as most agents of chemotherapy simply target rapidly dividing cells,not differentiating between cancer cells and other tissues.The activity of a drug at its binding site is one part of the design.Another to take into account is the molecules druglikeness(类药性类药性),which summarizes the necessary physical properties for effective absorption.One way of estimating druglikeness is Lipinskis Rule of Five(类药类药5规则规则).