现代语言学自考本科00830课件.ppt

1、Modern Linguistics作者：睿智婉心Table of ContentChapter 1Introduction Chapter 6PragmaticsChapter 2PhonologyChapter 7Historical LinguisticsChapter 3MorphologyChapter 8SociolinguisticsChapter 4syntaxChapter 9PsycholinguisticsChapter 5SemanticsChapter 10Language AcquisitionChapter 1Chapter 11What is linguisti

2、cs?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language,but languages in general.Chapter 11The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communi

3、cation,is called phonetics.语音学The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.音系学The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.形态学The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.句法学

4、The study of meaning in language is called semantics.语义学The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.语用学The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.社会语言学The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.语言心理学The st

5、udy of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is generally known as applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning,especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Ot

6、her related branches include anthropological linguistics,（人类语言学）neurological linguistics,（神经语言学）mathematical linguistics,（数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）Chapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSome important distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive and descriptiveIf a linguis

7、tic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive,if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Traditional grammar is prescr

8、iptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use,whether it is“correct”or not.Chapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSome important distinctions in linguisticsSynchronic and diachronic The description of a lang

9、uage at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.In modern linguistics,synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.Modern linguistics regards the spoke

10、n form of language as primary,but not the written form.Reasons are:1.Speech precedes writing;2.There are still many languages that have only the spoken form;3.In terms of function,the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written,and carries a larger load of communication th

11、an the written.Chapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSome important distinctions in linguisticsLangue and parole The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

12、of a speech community,and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study.He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole,to discover the regularities governing the actual us

13、e of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Chapter 11Some important distinctions in linguisticsSome important distinctions in linguisticsCompetence and performance Proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of th

14、e rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter 12What is language?What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human

15、communication.Sapir uses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”in his definition.Hall,like Sapir,treats language as a purely human institution.Chomskys definition is quite different,it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathem

16、atically precise point of view.Chapter 12Design featuresDesign featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features,five of which will be discussed her

17、e.Arbitrariness Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.It is not entirely arbitrary.Eg:different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpre

18、tation of new signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences,including sentences they have never heard before.DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure,or two levels,one of s

19、ounds and the other of meaning.Displacement Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,i.e.,we

20、 were born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned anew.This indicates that language is culturally transmitted.It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning,rather tha

21、n by instinct.Chapter 2Chapter 21The phonic medium of languageThe phonic medium of languageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.Speech is prior to writing.The writing system of any

22、language is always“invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists,the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of l

23、anguage(语言的声音媒介).The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds（语音）.Chapter 22Organs of speechOrgans of speechThe pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 the throatThe oral cavity 口腔 the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔 the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways.

24、It may also be modified in the larynx(喉)before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis(声门)are the vocal cords(声带).Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called“voicing”.The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.The tongue is the most fle

25、xible in the oral cavity.Chapter 22Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptionsOrthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptionsIPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech soundsOne is the transcription wi

26、th letter-symbols(字母符号)only,called broad transcription(宽式音标).The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(变音符号),called narrow transcription 实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：phit spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：spit对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰

27、音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：li:fFeel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音l，在窄式音标中加变音符号IIChapter 22Classification of English speech soundsClassification of English speech soundsClassification of English consonantsClassification of English consonants按发音方式分Stop or plos

28、ive 塞音或爆破音:p b t d k g Fricative 擦音：f v s z s h Affricate 塞擦音：tdLiquid流音：l rNasal鼻音：m n Glide滑音：w j按发音部位分 Bilabial双唇音：p b m w Labiodental唇齿音：f vDental齿音：Alveolar齿龈音：t d s z n l rPalatal硬腭音：tdiVelar软腭音：k g Glottal声门音：hChapter 22Classification of English speech soundsClassification of English speech s

29、ounds Classification of English vowels Classification of English vowels按舌头在口中的位置分Front vowel前元音：i:i e a Central vowel中元音：:Back vowel后元音：u:u:a:按口形的大小分Close vowel闭元音：i:i u:uSemi-close vowel半闭元音：e:Open vowel开元音：aSemi-open vowel半开元音：:a:按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：i:i e a:a:rounded vowel圆唇元音：u:u:按语音的长短分

30、Long vowel长元音i:a:u:Short vowel短元音i e a u 在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：ei ai u a u i i e uChapter 23Phonology and phoneticsPhonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature,it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languag

31、es;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language,it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Exa

32、mple:单词leap和peel中的l音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。Chapter 23Phone,phoneme,and allophonePhone,phoneme,and allophonePhone Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a

33、 language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phonemePhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme,it is a unit that is of distinctive value.But it is an abstract unit.A phoneme is n

34、ot a sound,it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.allophoneThe different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Chapter 23Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pairPhonemic contrast,complementa

35、ry distribution,and minimal pairPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.They might form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes,or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.Phonemic contrastThe former is called phonemic contrast,they c

36、an occur in the same environments and they distinguish plementary distributionThe latter is called complementary distribution;they are two allophones of the same phoneme.They only occur in different environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound

37、for another one results in a change of meaning.If it does,the two sounds then represent different phonemes.An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,th

38、e two words are said to form a minimal pair.Chapter 23Some rules in phonologySome rules in phonologysequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.重要的规则I.如果单词以l 或r 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude,last,II.如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是

39、/p/t/k/，第三音位必定是/l/r/w/，如strict,splendid.III.塞擦音td和咝音s z 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teachesti:tiz。IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.重要的规则I.元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，

40、该元音要鼻音话。如bean/green 中的i:音。II.在一个单词中，鼻音n所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct incorrect。III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为n音同化成了m音。deletion rules The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.重要的规则如g音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的g音不发音。而在加了后缀的si

41、gnature中，g却要发音的。Chapter 23Suprasegmental features-stress,tone,intonationSuprasegmental features-stress,tone,intonationDistinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegme

42、ntal features.The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone.Stress重音重要的规则I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone 声调：英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。Intonation When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than t

43、he word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation:the falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rise tone,and the rise-fall tone.The most frequently used are the first three.Chapter 3Chapter 31DefinitionDefinitionMorphologyMorphology is a branch of

44、 grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-branches:inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.Chapter 32Definit

45、ionDefinitionMorphemeThe smallest meaningful unit of language。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds:lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.Types of morphemesFree morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination

46、with other morphemes.Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word.Chapter 32Types o

47、f Bound morphemesTypes of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types:roots and affixes A root is often seen as part of word;it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Affixes are of two types:inflection

48、al and derivational Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense,degree,and case.The English inflectional affixes include:-(e)s,indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数-(e)s,indicating third person singular,present t

49、ense 表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时-ing,indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时-er,indicating comparative degree of adj.and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicating superlative degree of adj.and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级-s,indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格Chapter 3

50、2Types of Bound morphemesTypes of Bound morphemesBound morphemes include two types:roots and affixes Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.This is a very common way to create new words in English.Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed