社会阶层化与社会流动Social-Stratificatio课件.ppt

1、Page 1 所有的社會皆有某種程度的不平等，即社會中的少數人擁有不成比率的財富、權力、及聲望。All known societies have been characterized by inequalities of some kind,with the most privileged individuals or families enjoying a disproportionate share of the total wealth,power,or prestige.Page 2 階層化研究的首要任務在於勾勒出不平等的分佈情況及發展過程，並解釋它之所以存在及維繫的理由。The ta

2、sk of contemporary stratification research is to describe the contours and distribution of inequality and to explain its persistence despite modern egalitarian or anti-stratification values.Page 3 階層化系統指的是創造不平等的複雜社會制度。The term stratification system refers to the complex of social institutions that g

3、enerate inequalities.Page 4 The key components of such systems are:(1)界定某種事物為有價值及人人都想要的體制過程the institutional processes that define certain types of goods as valuable and desirable,(2)將這些有價值的事物分配於分工體制中的不同職位與職業的規則the rules of allocation that distribute these goods across various positions or occupatio

4、ns in the division of labor(e.g.,doctor,farmer,or housewife)Page 5(3)將所有人分派於擁有、控制不同資源職位或位置的流動機制 the mobility mechanisms that link individuals to occupations and thereby generate unequal control over valued resources.Page 6 不平等是由兩種配對過程(matching processes)所造成的：(1)各種社會角色被配予不同價值的報酬The social roles in so

5、ciety are first matched to“reward packages”of unequal value,and (2)個人被分配到各種具有不同報酬的位置individual members of society are then allocated to the positions so defined and rewarded.Page 7 在所有的社會中，人們經常不斷地在各種不同的位置上進進出出，但這些位置及依附在位置上的報酬並不會經常變動。In all societies,there is a constant flux of occupational incumbent

6、s as newcomers enter the labor force and replace dying,retiring,or out migrating workers,yet the positions themselves and the reward packages attached to them typically change only gradually.Page 8 正如熊彼得指出，職位結構可以被比擬為一家生意很好的旅館，每一間房間經常住滿了人，但總是住著不同的人 As Schumpeter(1953)puts it,the occupational structur

7、e can be seen as a hotel.which is always occupied,but always by different persons(p.171).Page 9 一個階層化體系中的有價值的資財、資源及貨品可以分成下列幾類：Economic經濟性資源:擁有土地、廠房、農莊、專業、公司、流動資產、人、人力Economic Ownership of land,farms,factories,professional practices,businesses,liquid assets,humans(i.e.,slaves),labor power(e.g.,serfs)

8、Page 10 Political政治性資源:家中的權威（戶長），工作場所的權威（經理）政黨及社會威權（立法委員），有魅力的領導人Household authority(e.g.,head of household);workplace authority(e.g.,manager);party and societal authority(e.g.,legislator);charismatic leaderPage 11 Cultural文化性資產:上流社會的消費型態（Mets,Polo,wine tasting)、上流社會的禮儀(finishing school,British acce

9、nt)、特殊的生活形態(soho,long island villa)high status consumption practices;Good manners,Privileged life-stylePage 12 社會資產Social:特殊的社會網絡、俱樂部（Young executives club)Access to high status social networks,social ties,associations and clubs,union memberships Page 13 榮譽性資源Honorific:社會聲望、名譽、服從敬意、權威、宗教及種族的正統性Prest

10、ige;“good reputation;fame;deference and derogation;ethnic and religious purity Page 14 公民資源Civil:財產權、契約、特許投票權或經營權、委員會成員、集會結社自由Rights of property,contract,franchise,and membership in elective assemblies;freedom of association and speech.Page 15 知識技能Human Skills:專業、在職訓練、工作經驗、正式教育、知識Expertise;on the jo

11、b training;experience;formal education;knowledge Page 16 間接貨品“Second order goods”(i.e.,如投資investments)that are deemed valuable only insofar as they provide access to other intrinsically desirable goods.間接貨品的價值來自於他們與有價值物品的相關性。學歷、文化資源、社會網絡Schooling(Becker,1975),cultural resources(Bourdieu 1977),social

12、 networks(Coleman,1990)Page 17 以上的資源很多是與生俱來的或是從小時候的社會化過程中自然取得的（上流社會的禮儀），不是經由受益人的成本效益計算考量而取得。many of these assets are secured at birth or through childhood socialization(e.g.,the good manners of the aristocracy),and they are therefore acquired without the beneficiaries explicitly weighing the costs o

13、f acquisition against the benefits of future returns(see DiMaggio 1979).Page 18 階層化學者理應考量上述所有資產，採取一個多面向的觀點，將各種資產的分配視為具有連續性，並描述及解釋這些資產（源）的多變量分配。實際上，多數學者傾向將階層化體系視為由少數幾個階層或階級所組成（而非連續的概念），同一階級的成員擁有相同水準的資源stratification systems were usually characterized in terms of discrete classes or strata whose membe

14、rs are(allegedly)endowed with similar levels or types of assets.Page 19 這些階層經常被視為是具體的存在，以致於研究階層化的學者經常有階級位置影響其成員能夠控制的資源的說法，彷彿在資源尚未分配前，階級界線就已經存在。In the most extreme versions of this approach,the resulting classes are assumed to be real entities that exist prior to the distribution of assets,and many s

15、cholars therefore refer to the effects of class location on the assets that their incumbents control.Page 20 階層化研究的目的因而被化約成描述社會階級，然後進一步的勾勒出產生及維繫社會階級結構的過程。The goal of stratification research has thus been reduced to describing the structure of these social classes and specifying the processes by whic

16、h they are generated and maintained.以下是這個領域的幾個核心問題：The following types of questions are central to the field:Page 21(1)階層化的形式及起源Forms and sources of stratifications:What are the major forms of inequality in human history?Can the ubiquity of inequality be attributed to individual differences in talen

17、t or ability?Is some form of inequality an inevitable feature of human life?人類歷史當中的主要不平等的形式為何？無所不在的不平等可否完全歸因於個人在才能上的差異？階層化是否為歷史的必然？Page 22(2)當代社會階層化的結構The structure of contemporary stratification:What are the principal“fault lines”or social cleavages that define the contemporary class structure?Have

18、 these cleavages strengthened or weakened with the transition to modernity and postmodernity?社會中有哪些社會階級？階級之間的社會界線為何？這些階級界線在工業化的歷程中越來越明顯還是越來越模糊？Page 23(3)階層化的產生Generating Stratification:跨越職位或階級界線是否容易、是否頻繁？是否有永久的下層階級存在？智商、努力、學歷、自我期許、人際關係、與機運對於個人能夠找到什麼樣的 工作或隸屬於何種階級有沒有關連？個人取得社會地位的過程是否受到其他社會或體制力量的影響？How

19、frequently do individuals move into new classes,occupations,or income groups?Is there a permanent underclass?To what extent are occupational outcomes determined by such forces as intelligence,effort,schooling,aspirations,social contacts,and individual luck?Page 24(4)階層化造成的結果The consequences of strat

20、ification:生活型態、態度、人格如何受到社會階層地位的影響？過去或現今的社會中是否有明顯的階級文化區隔？How are the life styles,attitudes,and personalities of individuals shaped by their class locations?Are there identifiable class cultures in past and present societies?Page 25(5)Ascriptive processes:哪些社會過程或政策可以改變或強化勞動市場中的種族、性別、族群歧視？這些歧視現象是否隨著著工業

21、化的腳步逐漸消失中，還是有越演越烈的趨勢？What types of social processes and state policies serve to maintain or alter racial,ethnic,and sex discrimination in labor markets?Have these forms of discrimination weakened or strengthened with the transition to modernity and postmodernity?Page 26(6)The future of stratificatio

22、n:社會階層化的體系在未來是否會有新的形式出現？社會階級的概念在未來還適用嗎？專業人士及知識階層是否形成了一個嶄新的階級？現代社會的各種不同階層體系是否逐漸擺脫其特殊性而越來越趨朝向某一個共同的方向發展？Will stratification systems take on completely new and distinctive forms in the future?Is the concept of social class still useful in describing postmodern forms of stratification?Is a new class of

23、professionals and intellectuals emerging?Are the stratification systems of modern societies gradually shedding their distinctive features and converging toward some common(i.e.,post industrial)regime?Page 27 在人類大部分歷史中，階層化被視為是人類社會無法避免的必然特質，且經常用宗教或類似宗教的教義來合理化、解釋階層的存在。For the greater part of human hist

24、ory,the existing stratification order was regarded as an immutable feature of society,and the implicit objective of commentators was to explain or justify this order in terms of religious or quasi religious doctrines.Page 28 直到啟蒙運動時，平等的概念才被用來反對貴族及其他既得利益階層在法律及公民權上所享有的特權。It was only with the Enlighten

25、ment that a critical rhetoric of equality emerged in opposition to the civil and legal advantages of the aristocracy and other privileged status groupings.Page 29 這種平權的觀念逐漸從要求公民權（如投票權）拓展到要求經濟資產的分配、如土地、財產、生產工具等。The same egalitarian ideal was extended and recast to encompass not merely civil assets(e.

26、g.,voting rights)but also economic assets in the form of land,property,and the means of production.Page 30 因此階層化的研究與馬克思主義享有共同的前提：即相信所有的人應該完全平等。The field shares with Marxism a distinctively modern(i.e.,Enlightenment)orientation based on the premise that individuals are“ultimately morally equal”.這個前提隱

27、含不平等的問題為評估階層化系統是否符合正義及效率原則的關鍵。This premise implies that issues of inequality are critical in evaluating the legitimacy of stratification systems.Page 31 社會不平等有三種不同的基本形式：Differentiation分化 Ordering排序 Ranking評比Page 32 沒有任何兩個人是完全相同的。可用來區分人群的屬性包羅萬象，包括：appearance,physical features,psychological make up,pe

28、rsonality,age,sex,attitudes,skills,knowledge,experience,circumstances,income,property,possessions,etc.這些屬性中，僅有少數的屬性區別會形成社會不平等的基礎。而且不同社會及時代，造成不平等的分化基準有很大的差異。Page 33 例如財富幾乎在所有的社會及世代中，皆是形成不平等的主要基礎。但在Polynesian societies中，人們以頭髮顏色來區分社會地位。紅色頭髮被視為貴族的表徵，在社會中享有較高的地位。Page 34 排序指的是我們可以將一群人置於一個具有差異的尺度上Ordering

29、refers to the fact that individuals can be placed in relation to one another on a scale with respect to one or more differences.例如我們可以將班上的同學按照身高來排序。Before there can be inequality it must be possible to make judgments that individuals are greater or lesser with respect to something or have more or le

30、ss of something,and so on.Page 35 光有分化及排序不能形成社會不平等。只有當某種差異或順序被評價為好、壞或優、劣時，才有所謂不平等可言。所以社會不平等的概念隱含了對於某種可以用來將人排序的差異給予價值判斷The idea of inequality implies evaluation of some kind of difference by which people may be ordered.Page 36 對於人與人之間差異的評價（價值判斷）不外乎以下兩類：First,individual differences may be evaluated in

31、 terms of how desirable they are,有多麼被想要（欲求程度）second in terms of how admirable they are.有多令人景仰、稱羨Page 37 第一種Desirable欲求程度：如differences of material well being such as wealth or income.我們將基於享有高價值的物質、服務、機會及報酬等，所形成的不平等稱之為特權。We may term this type of inequality privilege which may be defined as the enjoyme

32、nt of valued goods,services,opportunities,rewards,life chances,etc.Page 38 第二種不平等乃奠基於對於某種令人景仰、讚佩、羨慕、或具有無形價值及榮譽的品質、特徵、或行動的評價。The second type of inequality,that based upon evaluations in terms of admirability,worthiness,honors,etc.,involves qualities,characteristics,and actions,which although admired

33、are not necessarily desired by others,although,of course,they may be.例如某種特殊的才藝、慷慨無私的個性等。Page 39 我們將對於某種特質或行動的內在價值做價值判斷所形成的不平等稱之為聲望。Inequality of this second type may be termed prestige and defined as the evaluation of characteristics or actions in terms of their worth or admirability.Page 40 形成聲望的基礎

34、為內在於人的屬性或特質，而形成特權的基礎為外在於個人的物質或條件。These characteristics are intrinsic to the individual who has them whereas the sorts of things that form the basis of privilege are extrinsic to the individual.Privilege is the enjoyment of things which are desirable享有欲求的事物 while prestige refers to characteristics in

35、trinsic to individuals or their behavior個人或其行為的某種內在特質,whether or not others desire to have those characteristics or to emulate the behavior.Page 41 Power:a social relationship in which one person gets others to do what they would not otherwise do.一個人可以促使另一個人去做他不會主動願意去做的事的一種社會關係。It is essentially the

36、 determination of the behavior of others對於他人行為的一種決定力量.Page 42 Power may itself be a form of inequality.It consists of actions and their effects which may be admired and may,therefore,be a form or basis of prestige.權力本身可以是一種形成不平等的基礎，因為它包含令人景仰的行為或效果，是形成聲望的基礎之一。Page 43 For the most part,however,power i

37、s not particularly admired for its own sake but for what it allows those that exercise it to do.大多數的情況，我們並不景仰、稱羨權力本身，而是權力的運用所能令我們達成的目標。Page 44 權力是否為特權的一種形式a form of privilege?我們經常說某人擁有權力其實是一種誤導。因為權力是一種互動的形式，是某人改變另外一個人行為的一種互動，它是內在於使用權力者的行動當中，而不是外在於行動者，而可以被累積、儲存的物質。Power is a type of interaction betwe

38、en people such that one party produces changes in the behaviors of the other.it is clear that this is intrinsic to the actions of those who exercise power and that it is not an extrinsic aspect that can he accumulated,stored,etc.,as can wealth.Page 45 權力雖然不是特權的一種形式，但經常是特權的形成基礎Power,of course,can be

39、and usually is an important basis or determinant of privilege.Privilege,prestige and power三者的關係密切Page 46 不平等的主觀面向：差異必需透過評價（evaluation)才能形成不平等，而評價必然包含主觀判斷。所謂主觀判斷並不是個人的一己之見，這些評價必須具有社會基礎，為社會所共同決定的評價socially determined。Page 47 社會共同發展出一套規範及標準來界定值得追求的事物（包含令人稱羨及人人想要的），每個社會的標準不一定完全相同，同一個社會中的個人彼此也有很大的差異Socie

40、ties develop and promote certain norms and standards as to what is admirable,and even what is desirable,which can vary considerably from one society to another and which members of a society are socialized to accept and affirm.Page 48 由於不平等具有主觀面向，各個次團體或文化有其評估的標準，因此社會分化程度越高，不平等的現象越複雜。應盡量避免假設同一社會中，只有一

41、種聲望的標準。The fact that evaluations are subjective suggests an important possibility;that they may vary from one sub group or culture to another within a society.We should not simply assume that there is just one,homogeneous,all pervasive pattern of prestige in a society.Page 49 由於社會中各個次文化或次團體評估聲望的標準不同

42、，因此對於報酬的分配及特殊權益的結構也會有不同的看法If there are significant discrepancies in criteria of evaluation of what is prestigious between various sub cultures or sub groups in the society,there will also,clearly,be disputes about the distribution of rewards and about the structure of privilege.Page 50 討論不平等問題，要特別注意

43、價值判斷主體的問題：究竟是對誰有價值？when dealing with evaluations we should always ask the question,whose values are we really concerned with?The dominant values are often the values of dominant groups in the society.主流價值觀永遠都反映統治階層的價值 換言之，社會不平等有其意識型態的面向In other words there may be an ideological dimension to inequali

44、ty which we should remain aware of.例如語言表達能力（作為一種文化資產）所造成的不平等，經常僅是反映統治層級的價值）Page 51 在某一個資產上的不平等程度決定於這個資產在人口中的分佈與集中情形。很多學者嘗試以一個簡單的指標來表達一個社會不平等的程度。但這樣的單一指標必然會過度簡化社會不平等的複雜現象。The degree of inequality in a given asset(e.g.,income)depends,of course,on its dispersion or concentration across the individuals

45、in the population.Although many scholars seek to characterize the overall level of societal inequality with a single parameter,such attempts will obviously be compromised insofar as some types of assets are distributed more equally than others.Page 52 不平等程度之所以如此複雜，主要是因為各種不同的不平等面向之間未必有共變關係，也就是說，某一個面向

46、的平等或不平等與其他面向不必然相關。例如公民權的普及化與經濟或政治資源的不平等程度無關。This complexity clearly arises in the case of modern stratification systems;for instance,the recent emergence of citizenship rights suggests that civil goods are now widely dispersed across all citizens,whereas economic and political goods continue to be d

47、isproportionately controlled by a relatively small elite(see,e.g.,Parsons 1970;Marshall 1981).Page 53 階層化系統的僵硬度（嚴峻度、封閉性）指的是社會成員的相對地位維持長久不變的狀態。The rigidity of a stratification system refers to the continuity(over time)in the social standing of its members.Page 54 假如我們可以從某人所佔居的社會地位或家世背景來正確地預測其在社會中所擁有的

48、財富、權力、及社會聲望，我們說這個階層化體系十分僵硬或嚴峻。The stratification system is said to be highly rigid,for example,if the current wealth,power,or prestige of individuals can be accurately predicted on the basis of their prior statuses or those of their parents.Page 55 一個社會中的階層化僵硬度，會因不同的資源及資產而有程度上的差異。如某些社會中，文化資產的分佈與階級的相

49、關度較高，而經濟性資產與社會地位較不相干。The amount of rigidity(or social closure)in any given society will typically vary across the different types of resources and assets listed in Table 1.Page 56 如果與生俱來的特質（性別、種族、族群、家世、國籍）對個人往後的社會地位有重大的決定影響力，則我們稱此階層化系統奠基於歸屬過程The stratification system rests on ascriptive processes to

50、 the extent that traits present at birth(e.g.,sex,race,ethnicity,parental wealth,nationality)influence the subsequent social standing of individuals.Page 57 如果歸屬過程在社會中的運作力很強，則這些與生俱來的特質會成為社會團體或集體行動的構成基礎（如女權運動、種族暴亂）If ascriptive processes of this sort are in operation,it is possible(but by no means gu