英语语言学及应用课件胡壮麟史上最全面.ppt

1、2022-12-16Welcome to LinguisticsContents名词解释；学术流派对比评论；理论解释某语言现象名词解释；学术流派对比评论；理论解释某语言现象语料库语言学语料库语言学、修辞学、修辞学、语用学、语用学、认知语言学、认知语言学、语言哲学、语言哲学、英汉对比语言学英汉对比语言学、语言学概论语言学概论语言学理论流派语言学理论流派流派漫谈：刘润清流派漫谈：刘润清认知语言学（附件）认知语言学（附件）第二语言习得（附件）第二语言习得（附件）语料库语言学（附件）语料库语言学（附件）2022-12-16Why does language provide such a fascina

2、ting object of study?2022-12-16Perhaps it is because its unique role in capturing the breadth of human thought and endeavor.We look around us,and are awed by the variety of several thousand languages and dialects,expressing a multiplicity of world views,literatures,and ways of life.We look back at t

3、he thoughts of our predecessors,and find we can see only as far as language lets us see.We look forward in time,and find we can plan only through language.We look outward in space,ands end symbols of communication along with our spacecraft,to explain who we are,in case there is anyone there who want

4、s to know.2022-12-16Alongside this,there is the importance we attach to language,as a means of understanding ourselves and our society,and of resolving some of the problems and tensions that arise from human interaction.No sector of society is unaffected,and all can benefit from the study of the lin

5、guistic factors that constitute a barrier,as well as a means of communication.But linguistic problems rarely admit simple solutions,and it is this elementary observations that has led to the present work.2022-12-16Or maybe the reason is in fact simple:human beings are always curious in seeking what

6、they dont know.Consider:What are taken for granted in our course of language use without realizing its wonder?2022-12-16A few Questions under the study of Linguistics-Where does language come from?How?When?-Why is language human-specific?-Why can a child learn his/her mother tongue in a short period

7、 of time?-How does language change?-How can people talk orderly?-How can we say one thing but mean another?-Why can a person speak and understand a sentence s/he had never spoken or heard before?Etc.2022-12-16What is linguisticsLinguistics,the scientific study of language,concerns itself with all as

8、pects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so.2022-12-16The Domain of Linguistics Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets【解剖学解剖学】小面小面 ,so the linguists have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.Modern linguists concern themselves with man

9、y different facets of language,from the physical properties of the sound waves in utterances to the intentions of speakers towards others in conversations and the social contexts in which conversations are embedded.The branches of linguistics are concerned with how languages are structured,how langu

10、ages are used,and how they change.Formal,human and social 2022-12-16I Language as a Formal形式的SystemThe study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics 语音学.It The diagram of speech organs1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teeth ridge(alveolar)齿龈齿龈4.Hard palate硬腭硬腭5.Soft palate(velum)6.Uvul

11、a小舌小舌 7.Tip of tongue8.Blade of tongue舌片舌片9.Back of tongue10.Vocal cords声带声带 11.Pharyngeal cavity咽喉腔咽喉腔12.Nasal cavity The place of articulation1.Bilabial双唇双唇;2.Labiodental唇齿的唇齿的;3.Dental or interdental齿音和齿间齿音和齿间;4.Alveolar齿龈音齿龈音;5.Palatoalveolar腭齿音腭齿音;6.Palatal 腭音腭音;7.Velar软腭音软腭音;8.Uvular小舌音小舌音;9.G

12、lottal声门声门.The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:2022-12-16I Language as a Formal SystemThe study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.is called phonology音系学音系学.

13、2022-12-16I Language as a Formal SystemWhile sounds are primary in linguistic communication,they are represented by certain symbols,i.e.,words and morphemes语素语素.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology 形态学形态学.The difference between root,stem&baseA base

14、can be added by both inflectional&derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;A base is derivationally analyzable(e.g.undesire in undesirable)while a root cannot be further analyzed,e.g.desire in undesirable;Root,stem and base can be the same form,e.g.desire in desire

15、d;Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;Desirable in undesirable is only a base.Morpheme语素Free morpheme自由语素定义：constitute words by themselves举例：girl,book,dogBound morpheme粘附语素定义:not occur by themselves Derivational morpheme派生语素定义：change lexical meaning举例：Dis-,co-,-ful,-enInflectional

16、 morpheme屈折语素定义：change grammatical meaning举例:-s,-ed,-ing,er,estMorpheme-the minimal unit of meaning-Words are composed of morphemes.Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes,e.g.1-morpheme boy,desire2-morpheme boy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morpheme gentle+

17、man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism wordSimple word简单词Compound word合成词Derivational word派生词wordGrammatical word 语法词（function word 功能词）定义：表达语法意义，连接举例：prep介词，conj连词，art冠词，pronoun代词Lexical word词汇词（content word 实义词）定义：表达实际意义（物质，动

18、作和性质）的词举例：n名词，v动词，adj形容词，adv副词wordOpen class word开放词类定义：不断有新词进入举例：noun,adj,verb,advClosed-class word封闭词类定义：基本没有新词进入举例:preposition,conjunction,article,pronoun词类Major part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法 按构词法分按构词法分简单词简单词

19、:dislike,light派生词派生词:dislike,lighten合成词合成词:cat-like,light-weight按词义分按词义分语法词语法词:冠冠,介，代，介，代，连词连词词汇词词汇词:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副按开放性分按开放性分开放词开放词:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副封闭词封闭词:冠冠,介，代，连词介，代，连词按在句中重要性分按在句中重要性分主要词类主要词类:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副,介介次要词类：冠，代，连词次要词类：冠，代，连词2022-12-16I Language as a Formal SystemThe studies internal structur

20、e of sentence and rules of sentence-formation called syntax句法句法.（Generative/Functional）Lexical categoryMajor part of speechNoun名词Verb动词Adjective形容词adverb副词preposition介词Minor part of speechArticle冠词Conjunction连词Auxiliary助动词 分类方法 按构词法分按构词法分简单词简单词:dislike,light派生词派生词:dislike,lighten合成词合成词:cat-like,ligh

21、t-weight按词义分按词义分语法词语法词:冠冠,介，代，介，代，连词连词词汇词词汇词:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副按开放性分按开放性分开放词开放词:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副封闭词封闭词:冠冠,介，代，连词介，代，连词按在句中重要性分按在句中重要性分主要词类主要词类/范畴范畴:名，动，形，副名，动，形，副,介介次要词类次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词范畴：冠，代，连词Transformational-Generative GrammarThe Birth of TG Grammar And the Innateness Hypothesis1.Founder:American linguis

22、t Noam ChomskyFull name Avram Noam ChomskyBorn 7 December 1928(1928-12-07)Philadelphia,Pennsylvania2.The mark of the beginningThe publication of Syntactic Structures in 1957In Syntactic Structures,Chomsky tries to construct a formalized theory of linguistic structure and places emphasis on rigorous

23、formulations and precisely constructed models.3.Five stages of development1)The Classical Theory,which aims to make linguistics a science.Syntactic Structures,1975 2)The Standard Theory,which deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,19653)The

24、Extended Standard Theory,which focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar Studies on Semantic in Generative Grammar,1972 4)The Revised Extended Standard Theory(or GB),which focuses on Government and Binding Lectures on Government and Binding,1981 5)The Minimalist Program,which i

25、s a further revision of the previous theory.The Minimal Program,1995 Minimalist Inquiries:The Framework,19984.The Innateness Hypothesis(Why should there be a TG Grammar?)When as a student of Hebrew with the structuralist methodology,he found that the classification of structural elements of language

26、 according to distribution and substitution had its limitationhe believes that language is somewhat innate,and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device,which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.According to him,the study of language,or th

27、e structure of language,can throw some light on the nature of the human mind.Hypothesis is based on some important facts:1).Children learn their native language very fast and with little effort.2).Children learn their mother tongue in very different environments,but they follow more or less the same

28、 stages in acquisition:the babbling stage快速模糊地发音快速模糊地发音 nonsense word stage holophrastic单词单词 stage two-word utterance developing grammar near-adult grammar full competence3)The children learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time,from limited exposure to speech(which is

29、often degenerate data)All these suggested that although babies are not born knowing a language,they are born with a preposition to develop a language.If children are predisposed for learning any language,human languages in the world must have the same underlying principles in common.This is what Cho

30、msky called language universals or linguistic universals.The Classical Theory and the Standard Theory1.How to begin the study of Language Universal?1)Chomsky believes that every speaker of language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.And th

31、e generative grammar,means“a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences”.2)In order to reach his ultimate goal,Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on:the observational adequacy levelthe descriptive adequacy lev

32、elthe explanatory adequacy Descriptive adequacy：a grammar is a model of native competence.Explanatory adequacy:a theory of L can account for the phenomena of L and mind of native speaker.Observational adequacy：一部语法若能生成某个语言样品的全部数据，一部语法若能生成某个语言样品的全部数据，能正确预测哪些句子是合式的能正确预测哪些句子是合式的，就达到了观察充分性，即布龙菲尔德式。，就达到了

33、观察充分性，即布龙菲尔德式。3)Contrary to Bloomfields data-oriented discovery procedure,Chomsky insists on the Hypothesis-deduction演绎演绎 method and his research is called evaluation process4)What is a generative grammar?By a generative grammar，Chomsky simply means“a system of rules that in some explicit and well-d

34、efined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences”.He believes that every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.“Thus a generative grammar attempts to specify what the speaker actually knows，not what he may report

35、about his knowledge.”(Chomsky,1965)To generate is to predict what could be the possible sentences of language.Transformation is a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another.It uses a finite number of rules to produce infinite number of sentences.2.The classical Theory1)It aims to make

36、 linguistics a science:2)Its features:emphasis on generative ability of language introduction of transformational rules grammatical description regardless of meaning3)Chomsky put forward three kinds of grammar:finite state grammar有限状态文法有限状态文法 phrase structure grammar transformational grammarSee belo

37、w:Three kinds of grammarThe finite state grammar is appropriate to describe process of learning,but it is inappropriate to explain the complexities of the human cognitive system.It contains deep structure and surface structure.vDeep structure:the abstract representation of the syntactic properties o

38、f a construction.vSurface structure:the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction The phrase structure rules are as follows:a.SNP+VP b.VP Verb+NP c.NP NP(single)NP(plural)d.NP(s)D+N e.NP(p)D+N+s f.D the g.N man,ball,door,dog,book,h.Verb aux+V i.V hit,take,bite,eat,walk,j.Aux Tense(+M

39、)(+have+en)(+be+ing)k.Tense Present Past l.M will,can,may,shall,must,NPArt N PP P NP Art N PP P NP Art N PP P NP Art N PP The house in the woods by the mountains near the river embeddingTransformational rules(T-rules)are the operations that add,delete or change elements in one structure to produce a

40、nother structure.It refers to all the rules that apply after all lexicon items have been inserted into the structures.Two obligatory T-rules:1.Flip-flop起落起落 rule(FF rule，affix-transformational/shifting/hopping rule):the affix and verb are shifted in order.2.Lexical formation rule(LF rule):It require

41、s the lexicon that determine the last appearance of the sentence.The Generative Process of A Sentence(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball)S NP VP Det N Verb NP Det N the man hit the ball 4)Some defects in the theoryThe transformational rules are too powerful.The rules may generate ill-formed

42、 sentences as well as well-formed ones.For example,with the rules SNP+VP,and VPV+NP,there might be generated the following two:S S NP VP NP VP V NP V NP John drink wine wine drink JohnThe transformational rules for the passive voice cannot be used at will,for some of the English verbs do not have pa

43、ssive structures.S NP Aux VP Det N PPThe mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.S NP Aux VP NP NP The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.phrase structure is too flexible（歧义句）3.The standard Theory1)Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components:syntact

44、ic,phonological and semantic.The relationships of the three components can be illustrated by the following diagram:Base ComponentRewriting RulesLexiconDeep StructureT-RulesSurface StructureSemantic ComponentPhonological RulesSemantic RepresentationPhonological Representation2)Its advantages over the

45、 Classical TheoryTransformation can only change the forms of sentences and are not allowed to alter the meaning.To rule out the generation of sentences like Wine drinks John,there is now a selectional restriction to ensure that the animate noun appears before the verb and inanimate noun appear after

46、 the verb.Restrictions are put on transformations in order not to generate ill-formed sentences.According to re-writing rules,sentences can be embedded,thus,the theory now covers not only simple sentences but also complex ones.The rule are properly ordered and there is a set order in which the rules

47、 apply.3)Problems unsolved in the theoryThe transformational rules are still too powerful,for they can move or delete linguistic segments,change the categories,keep the original meaning intact,and according to specific circumstances.Derived nouns and their corresponding verbs are irregular not only

48、in terms of syntactic features,but also in phonological and semantic relations,which is ignored in the Standard Theory.The Standard Theory holds that semantic interpretations are determined by the deep structure,and transformational process will not change the sentence meaning.Later this was found t

49、o be impossible.The Standard Theory cannot explain gapped structures as:John ate some spaghetti,and Mary some macaroni.Investigations of more type of rules showed that many transformational rules must have complex constraints in order that they do not produce ungrammatical sentences.The Extended Sta

50、ndard Theory and Later Theories1.The Extended Standard Theory1)In the Extended Standard Theory,Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice.2)In his first revision,Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure.3)The second revision involves the whole theoretical framework,which