《技术与商务交流英语（第二版）》课件Chapter 4 Technical Style and Rhetoric.pptx

1、1.Learn the four rhetorical principles in technical writing:Selecting appropriate words.Writing clear sentences.Organizing documents effectively.Making your document user-friendly.2.Discuss what the proper technical style is.Lets“find fault”togetherRephrase the expression on your note,making it more

2、 concise,direct,and clearer,and share the basis of your modification.Aesthetic RhetoricCommunicative RhetoricCommunicative rhetoric（交际修辞）（交际修辞）is the art and skill of language to increase the effect of practical information exchange.Aesthetic rhetoric（美学修辞美学修辞）is the art and skill of language to ach

3、ieve an artistic effect of vividness,visualization,and elegance.RhetoricRhetoric（修辞）（修辞）is the art and skill in using language effectively.Style（文体）（文体）is the integration of various rhetorical skills that reflects the features of a certain genre,register or time.Register（语域（语域,功能变体）功能变体）is a variety

4、 of a language determined by the communicative purpose,social context,and standing of the user.Review:What are the purposes of TBC?The purposes of TBC are to inform and persuade effectively.Inform effectively:make your readers understand your idea easilyquickly and accurately.Persuade effectively:ma

5、ke your readers accept your idea easilyquickly and willingly.To fulfill the two purposes,you should follow the four principles of business rhetoric:01020304Writing clear sentences.Selecting appropriate words.Organizing documents effectivelyMaking your document user-friendly.I.Selecting Appropriate W

6、ords1.Avoiding Inflated Language 2.Avoiding Jargon3.Using the Correct Word 4.Avoiding Clichs5.Avoiding the Old Language of Business1.Avoiding Inflated Language Big words only make the sentence longer and harder to understand without adding any more meaning.Replace inflated words with words.Your conc

7、eptualization of our aggregate capability may enhance our producing position.Your idea about our capability may improve our production.Inflated Words:Familiar Words:assistance helpcease stopenvision seeendeavor tryfurnish give,provideinstitute beginnecessitate requirenotification noticeoriginate sta

8、rtreside liveretain keepterminate endutilize useImportant Notes:Avoiding inflated language in technical writing doesnt mean that you dont need to learn these big and formal words by heart.You may not use them in writing or speaking,but you must understand them in reading and listening.Therefore,havi

9、ng a large vocabulary is essential for English majors.1.Avoiding Inflated Language 2.Avoiding JargonJargon refers to the specialized language of a trade or profession.Unilateral nephrectomy was performed.One-sided kidney cutting was performed.One kidney was cut out.2.Avoiding JargonIf you must use a

10、 specialized term,define it in the sentence by using the parentheses or dashes.Patients should take analgesics under doctors instruction.(pain relieving drugs)When writing mainly for average people,use more general terms in the sentence.To maintain professional accuracy,you may add the technical ter

11、m after the general one.Jenner wondered if cowpox made the milkmaids resistant,or immune,to smallpox.The diseases that are transmitted from animals to human being(zoonoses)has received wide attention recently.2.Avoiding Jargon3.Using the Correct WordAccuracy in technical communication is vital.The w

12、rong choice of words could be misleading,confusing,and costly.Similar WordsCorrect UsagesAffect means“to have an influence on.”Effect used as a noun means“a result.”Effect used as a verb means“to make happen.”Smoking affects health.Smoking has a negative effect on health.Smoking can effect deteriora

13、tion in health.Already means“before this time.”All ready means“prepared.”She had already gone when I arrived.We are all ready for the long journey.Continual means“repeated at intervals.”Continuous means“without interruption.”The young couple have continual arguments with each other for trifles.The b

14、rain needs a continuous supply of blood.4.Avoiding Clichs Busy as a bee Quick as a wink Went in one ear and out the other Last but not least Selling like hotcakes It has been observed that.It has been concluded that.It goes without saying that.As is already pointed out that.Some originally fresh and

15、 vivid expressions have lost their power because of being frequently used for a long time.Old language of business:Influenced by legal language and the language of the nobility,English business writing in the late 18th and 19th century was very formal and unnatural in style.However,with the coming o

16、f information age,this style is already out of date.E.g.This will acknowledge receipt of your May 10th order for ten dozen Nike slacks.Please be advised that they will be shipped in accordance with your instructions by Green Arrow Motor Freight on May 16.We have received your May 10th order for ten

17、dozen Nike slacks.As you instructed,they will be shipped by Green Arrow Motor Freight on May 16.5.Avoiding the Old Language of BusinessII.Writing Clear SentencesClear sentences are those that can be easilyquickly and accuratelyunderstood by readers.1.Following the Natural Structure of a Sentence“Giv

18、en+New”(old-new/cause-effect/condition-result)You can turn the switch to“ON”after you have put the immersion heater into water.After you have put the immersion heater into water,you can turn the switch to“ON”.linear order:What happens first comes first.The power plant was shut down because the nucle

19、ar reactor was getting out of control.(Unnatural)Because the nuclear reactor was getting out of control,the power plant was shut down.(Natural,from cause to effect)Example You should type in your user name and access code if you want to log on.(Unnatural and may cause misoperation)If you want to log

20、 on,you should type in your user name and access code.(Natural and safe,from condition to action)The linear order(old to new;cause to effect;condition to action)of the sentence is effective in technical writing.Example2.Avoiding Overusing the Passive VoicePassive voiceActive voiceIf you do not settl

21、e my claim by July 18,I will contact Nicholson Business Bureau for advice on legal action.Nicholson Business Bureau will be contacted,and their advice on legal action will be taken If my claim is not settled by July 18.By upsetting the“Given+New”structure,the passive voice makes writing wordy,indire

22、ct and difficult to comprehend.3.Eliminating Extra Words Due to the fact that the vegetation was destroyed,the pasture turned into desert.the vegetation was destroyed,the pasture turned into desert.A list of wordy and concise expressions:WordyConcisea majority ofmostat the conclusion of afterat the

23、present timenowowing to the fact thatbecausefor the purpose of tofor the reason thatsincein view of the foregoingthereforeon a daily basisdailyprior tobeforewith regard to about4.Avoiding Redundancy Unnecessary repetition clutters writing and dilutes meaning.Through mutual cooperation,we can achieve

24、 our goals.We can achieve our goals by cooperation.A list of redundant and concise expressions:RedundantConciseadequate enoughenough(or adequate)and moreovermoreoverbut neverthelessneverthelessby means ofbyduring the course of duringentirely completecompleteevery singleevery(or single)exactly the sa

25、methe samefew in numberfewnever at any time nevernew innovationinnovationWeak verbA verb that doesnt express a concrete action.5.Avoiding“Weak Verb+Nominalization”ConstructionNominalizationA noun derived from a verb or an adjective.The research performed an analysis and made an evaluation of our new

26、 system.The research analyzed and evaluated our new system.A list of comparison:Weak verb+Nominalization Strong Verbis an application ofapplyhave the ability to docan dotake into considerationconsidermake an assumption ofassumecome to the conclusionconcludegive a summary ofsummarizeconduct an invest

27、igation ofinvestigateprovide a description ofdescribeThe invention of nuclear weapons and the subsequent development by the United States and the Soviet Union of many thousands of strategic nuclear weapons forced a slow and painful recognition that the new power thus acquired forever changed not onl

28、y the relationship between the two superpowers but also the relationship of humankind to the institution of warfare itself.(58w)Long sentenceRevised versionThe United States and the Soviet Union invented nuclear weapons and subsequently developed many thousands of strategic warheads in the arms race

29、 against each other.They were forced slowly and painfully to recognize that this new power forever changed not only the relationship between them,but also the relationship of mankind to the practice of war.6.Avoiding long sentences complicated in structuresKeep the length of your sentence in about 2

30、5w.7.Avoiding Negative SentencesPositiveNegative He didnt go home until he finished his homework.After he finished his homework,he went home.Negative sentences are indirect because they imply what we should do by telling us what not to do.Replace the negative construction with the positive below.Neg

31、ative:Positive:not untilonly whennot unlessonly ifnot rejectacceptnot disagreeagreenot illegallegalnot failsucceed8.Avoiding Noun Strings You can place a noun before another as a pre-modifier.But if you use two or more nouns to modify another one,the string of words(noun string)can be hard to unders

32、tand because it is difficult to determine their relations.Example:The newly developed computer system can be configured to meet a wide range of user data communication requirements.There can be at least three possible relations for italicized part.requirements for communicating users data users requ

33、irements for data communication data requirements for user communication It is difficult for nonprofessional readers.Examples for clearing up relations of noun stringsExample 1:This study aimed at devising a system for growth hormone secretion control mechanism investigations.Our aim was to devise a

34、 system for investigation of ways of controlling secretion of growth hormone.(Use prepositional phrases as post-modifiers)我们的目的是设计一个系统，用于研究控制生长激素分泌的途径。Example 2:His job involves fault analysis systems troubleshooting handbook preparation.His job involves preparing troubleshooting handbooks for fault

35、-analysis systems.(Turn the noun phrase into a gerundial phrase and use a hyphen)他的工作包括为事故分析系统编写故障排除手册。Example 3:The factory is installing a hazardous materials dispersion monitor system.The factory is installing a system to monitor the dispersion of hazardous materials.(Turn the premodifiers into a

36、n infinitive phrase as a post-modifier)工厂正在安装一套监控危险物料扩散的系统。Example 4:The instruction explains how to operate the main gear inboard door retraction winch handle.The instruction explains how to operate the winch handle that retracts the inboard door to the main gear.(Use a relative clause as a post-mo

37、difier)说明书解释如何操纵驱动主齿轮内舱门的绞车手柄。Guidelines for clearing up noun strings If you want to keep the pre-modifiers,use hyphens to mark their relations.Turn the pre-modifiers into post-modifiers in forms of prepositional phrases,nonfinite verb phrases,or relative clauses.If the central noun is a verbal noun

38、,turn the noun phrase into a nonfinite verb phrase.III.Organizing Your Document Effectively Design your document to make it logical,coherent,informative,and easier for readers.Document organization includes:Organize sentences into paragraphs or chunks of information.Arrange paragraphs and chunks of

39、information to form a complete document.Design your document so that it is easy to navigate,i.e.make it easy for readers to find the information they need quickly.1.Arranging Sentence Order for CoherenceCoherenceIt means sentences and paragraphs should be logically connected and consistent in relati

40、onship.Linear orderEach sentence builds on the preceding one and looks ahead to the following sentence.WaysThe coherence between sentences can be achieved by the linear order.ContructionThe typical construction of the linear order is“Given+New”.(1)given A to new BA refrigerator A is mainly composed

41、of a compressor,a condenser and an evaporator,which are connected one another by tubes B.(2)given B to new CThe compressor B compresses the low-pressure gas from the evaporator and changes it into hot-high-pressure gas C.(3)given C to new DThis resultant hot-high-pressure gas C enters the condenser,

42、where heat is transferred into the air by radiation and the gas condenses to become cold high-pressure liquid D.(4)given D to new EThis liquid D passes through the evaporator,where the pressure on the liquid is reduced E.(5)given E to new FThe liquid with reduced pressure E turns into gas by absorbi

43、ng heat,and thus the temperature within the refrigerator decreases F.2.Using the Topic SentenceThe topic sentence introduces the paragraph or states its major idea.It may be placed at the end of a paragraph as a summary or conclusion.inductiveIts most commonly placed at the beginning of the paragrap

44、h.deductiveIf the material is highly technical and difficult,it is better to place it at the beginning.3.Using Helpful TransitionsPurpose:They lead readers from one point to the next so that the readers can easily understand the entire document.Definition:Transitional words,or Logical connectors,are

45、 words indicating relations between ideas,such as moreover,however,finally,etc.Chinese achieves coherence mainly by meaning through context.1也有一些恒星非常小，有的比地球还小。2可是可是这种恒星的物质，密度特别大。3火柴头那么大的一点点就抵得上十多个成年人的重量。4用白金造成同样大的一个球，重量才抵得上它的二千分之一。5人到了这种星星上休想站得起来 English achieves coherence mainly by form through tra

46、nsitions.There are some other stars 1that are very small,2and some are even smaller 3than the earth.4However,the substances of these stars have especially high density.A bit of the substance as small 5as a match head can be as heavy 6as the weight of more than 10 adults.7If a ball made of platinum w

47、ere as big 8as the star,its weight would be only as little 9as 1/2000 of the star.A man could never stand up 10if he reached the star.Function(Introducing.)Transitional ExpressionsAn additional ideain addition,furthermore,moreover,besides,also,too,and,nor,neitherAn opposite ideaon the other hand,in

48、contrast,in spite of,nevertheless,but,yet,although,even though,whereas,however,whileA choiceotherwise,or,either,if,unlessAn examplefor example,for instance,such asReason/causefor,because,since,asSummaryin conclusion,in summary,in brief,in shortSequencefirst,firstly,second,secondly,last,lastly,finall

49、yResultsaccordingly,as a result,as a consequence,therefore,consequently,hence,thus,so4.Using Lists to Present Parallel ItemsLists are especially useful in the following conditions:Presenting a sequence of actions or steps.Presenting several components that could be confusing in the text form.Directi

50、on:Comparison between a passage and a list:A Passage:If you want to listen to the radio with your portable radio-cassette recorder,you can use its radio operation.All you have to do is to follow the instructions.You should first set the FUNCTION switch to RADIO.And then you should set the required r