简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析课件.ppt

1、Chapter 4 Syntax vThe word Syntax,derived from Greek,is made up of 2 morphemes:syn and tax.The former means“_”,and the latter“_”.vIn linguistics,Syntax(句法学句法学)is a branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.To put it simple,it is

2、 the study of the formation of sentences.togetherto arrangevSince Sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language,syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study.vDifferent linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure.1.the traditional approach(传

3、统学派传统学派)；2.the structure approach(结构主义学派结构主义学派)；4.the functional approach(功能学派功能学派).3.the generative approach(生成学派生成学派)；American linguists A.N.Chomsky(1928-)vCategory(P42)refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a n

4、oun phrase or a verb.1.word-level categories2.phrase categories3.sentences the generative approach(生成学派生成学派)vThe term category in some approaches refers to in its narrow sense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,noun phrase,verb phrase,etc.More specifically,it refers to the categories of the nouns,for e

5、xample,include number,gender,case and countability;and of the verb,for example,tense,aspect,voice,etc.syntax categories(句法范畴句法范畴)classes and functions the defining properties of these general units：vThe most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.(traditionally,parts

6、 of speech)1.How many word classes do you know about?traditional categories:n.,v.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,aux.,pronoun.non-traditional categories:determiner(Det限定词限定词),degree words(Deg程度词程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语修饰语).3.What are major/minor lexical categories?2.What are the criteria to determine a words c

7、ategories?meaning;inflection;distribution.Note:The most reliable criterion of determining a words category is its distribution.Major lexical categories are often assumed to be the heads(中心语中心语/中心成分中心成分)around which phrases are built:n.,v.,adj.and prep.Minor lexical categories include:determiner(Det限

8、定词限定词),degree words(Deg程度词程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰修饰语语)and so on.(P43)Syntactic units1.definition for phrase categories2.two levelsv that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories,such as NP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).the pretty girlDet A NNPword levelphrase levelP45,please draw t

9、ree diagrams for the other 3 phrases.The word class of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.Specifiers can be determiners(限定词限定词)as in NP,qulifiers(修饰语修饰语)as in VP and degree words(程度词程度词)as in AP and PP.vspecifier+head+complement 3.the structure or elements of phrases the wor

10、d around which a phrase is formed标志语标志语中心语中心语补足语补足语the words on the right side of the headsthe words on the left side of the headsvNP (Det)+N+(PP)vVP (Qual)+V+(NP)vAP (Deg)+A+(PP)vPP (Deg)+P+(NP)Specifier+head+complement phrase structure rule:the grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement

11、of elements that make up a phrase.1.the tall man with glasses that I met2.advise him in a writing class that he should buy an English dictionary3.curious of the results that no one was there4.after the English class Please decide whether the following lexical items are phrases.If yes,please identify

12、 the phrase categories by figuring out their heads and then analyze their structure.1.NP(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)2.VPV(NP)(PP)(S)3.AP A(PP)(S)4.PP P(NP)vNP (Det)+N+(PP)vVP (Qual)+V+(NP)vAP (Deg)+A+(PP)vPP (Deg)+P+(NP)The XP rulePhrase Structure rules specifier+head+complement Specifier X Complement HeadXPX

13、P (specifier)X(complement)XP rulespecifier X complement headXPXP (specifier)X(complement)X theoryspecifier X(head)complementXPXword levelphrase levelintermediate levela.XP (specifier)X b.X X(complement)(X标杆理论标杆理论)word levelphrase level请分析：请分析：often read stories(并列规则并列规则P48)vCoordination structures-t

14、he structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,or,etc.boys and girlsstay or leave1.sing,dance,reador watch TV2.sing sweet songs or draw beautiful pictures3.apples,bananas,oranges /singing,dancing4.optimistic and passionate Co

15、ordination has four important properties:There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction.A category at any level can be coordinated.Coordinated categories must be of the same type.The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the ele

16、ments being conjoined.(并列规则并列规则)vspecifier+head+complement 标志语标志语中心语中心语补足语补足语v4.4.1.specifiers plements v4.4.3.modifiers v1.Semantically,specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;syntactically,they typically mark a phrase boundary.v2.The word class of the specifier differs depending on th

17、e category of the head.Specifiers can be determiners(限定词限定词Det)as in NP,qulifiers(修饰语修饰语Qual)as in VP and degree words(程度词程度词Deg)as in AP and PP.v3.They are attached to the top level of phrase structures.(X-theory)标志语标志语specifier+head+complement vComplements themselves can be a phrase,they provide i

18、nformation(about entities and locations)(whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head).eg.read;a story;putvThe information(about a words complement)is included(in the head)and termed subcategorization(次范畴化次范畴化).补足语补足语specifier+head+complement vA certain lexical item requires a certain type

19、of complement.eg.appear(vi.),cut(vt.),put(vt.)vThere can be no complement,one complement,or more than one complement in a phrase,e.g.appear,break,putvComplements,however many there are,occur to the right of the head in English.Thus there is a revised XP rule:XP (specifier)X(complement*)vThere can be

20、 no complement,one complement,or more than one complement in a phrase,e.g.appear,break,put;a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come.Words which introduce the sentence complement are called complementizers(Cs)(

21、补补语化成分语化成分).The sentences introduced by complementizers are complement clause(补语从句补语从句)complement phrases(补语短语补语短语)(shortened as CP)vThere is no limit on the number of embedded clauses that can occur in a sentence since each complement can contain a verb that itself permits a complement phrases.Miss

22、 Hebert believes that she will win the game which is organized by the new committee that are fully aware that their target to promote the development of folk arts that XP (specifier)X(complement*)vNot all verbs can take a CP complement.Words that can CP are not verbs alone;As,Ns and Ps can all take

23、CP.ItemsHeads Examples Adjectives afraid,certain,aware I was afraid that nobody would believe me.Nouns fact,claim,belief She cant believe the fact that she would fail in the exam.Prep.over,about They argued over whether she had come to class.vModifiers specify optionally expressible properties of he

24、ads.修饰语修饰语ModifierPosition Example AP precedes the head A very careful PP follows the head with care AdvP precedes or follows the head carefully;carefully XP (specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)XP (specifier)X(complement*)XP (specifier)X(complement)Please analyze the following phrase:1.open the box w

25、ith care 2.a story about a sentimental girlvNP (Det)+N NP (Spec)+N V Det N P Nopen the box with careVPPPNPhead +complement +modifiervPP P+(NP)PP P+(Complement)vVP V+(NP)+(PP)VP V+(Complement)+(Mod)Det N P Det A N a story about a sentimental girlPPNPNPNPvNP (Spec)+（Mod）+NvPP P+(Complement)specifier+h

26、ead +complement 1.陈述句陈述句2.疑问句疑问句（1）带有助动词）带有助动词(overt Infl form)的一般疑问句的一般疑问句（2）不带有助动词的一般疑问句）不带有助动词的一般疑问句（3）特殊疑问句特殊疑问句Sentence patterns:Det N V Det NA boy found the evidenceTraditionally:S NP VPSNP(subject)VP(predicate)NPIt assumes that a sentence does not have an internal structure:a head,a complemen

27、t and a specifier.Many linguists nowadays,however,believe that sentences,like other phrases,also have their own heads.Inflection(dubbed Infl屈折变化屈折变化)is an abstract category as their heads,which indicates the sentences tense and agreement.Present:S NP Infl VPInflP(=S)NPVPInflthe subject,as specifiera

28、s headas complementInflP(=S)Det N V Det NA boy found the evidencePstInflNPVPNPheadDet N V Det N A boy will find the evidenceInflP(=S)NPVPNPInflheadDid the boy find the evidence?What will he do?A transformation is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.It can be

29、inversion(倒置倒置),insertion(插入插入)or other kinds of movement.4.6.1 Auxiliary movement(inversion)4.6.2 Do insertion 4.6.3 Deep structure&surface structure 4.6.4 Wh-movement InflP(=S)NPVPInflthe subject,as specifieras headas complementA boy will find the evidence.Jim can swim very well.Will the train arr

30、ive?（助动词）（助动词）C The yes-no question structure are built in two steps:Step 1:the usual XP rule is used to form a statement.Step 2:form a yes-no question using inversion(倒置倒置).Det N VThe train will arriveNPVPSInfl Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.complementizer(补语化成分补语化成分)CPa word whi

31、ch introduce the sentence complement.Inversion Move Infl to C.(P54)Will the train arrive?Ccomplement clause(=S)complement phrases(CP)matrix clause(主句主句)I believed that she was innocent.Det N VThe train will arriveNPVPSInflCCPA trans-formation is a special type of rule that can move an element from o

32、ne position to another.Please analyze the following phrase by drawing a tree diagram for it:Should the student report the incident?CCPwill Det N VThe train e arriveNPVPSInflInfl The yes-no question structure are built in two steps:vStep 1:the usual XP rule is used to form a statement.(Do insertion i

33、s needed)vStep 2:form a yes-no question using inversion(倒置倒置).Birds flySNP Infl VPDo birds fly?N VdoDo insertion-Insertinterrogative do into an empty Infl position.doCCPInfl evConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.vConsider one more sentence:Flying p

34、lanes can be dangerous.1)If you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity;2)Planes that are flying are dangerous.vStructurally similar/same sentences might be very different in their meanings,for they have quite different deep structures.（深层结构）（深层结构）（表层结构）（表层结构）=sb.pleases John=John pleases

35、 sb.vDeep structure(or D-structure)are formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization(次范畴化次范畴化)properties;it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.eg.The dogs(that he keeps)bites.The dogs(he keeps what)bites.vSu

36、rface structure(or S-structure)is the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations;it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.surface structure:it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.CCPwill Det N VThe train e arriveNPVPSInflIn

37、flWill the train arrive?Det N VThe train will arriveNPVPSInflEx.8 P66Ex.7 P65The organization of the syntactic component of the grammarThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complementsvConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What la

38、nguages can you speak?What can you talk about?vThese sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.deep structuressurface structuresvWh-movement-Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.vWhat language can you speak?vWhat can you talk about?transformationinv

39、ersioninversionwh movementwh movementLets analyze the following phrase:What should the student report?Tree diagram?vWh-movement-Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.(Revised)1.Wh phrase as complement of a verb or preposition;2.Wh phrase as a subject;(P60)3.Wh movement in relative clau

40、ses.(P61)What will you talk about?Who won the game?you will talk about WhatThe dog(that he keeps)bites.The dog(he keeps what)bites.CCPDet N N V N VThe dog he keeps what bitesCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflDeep structureWh-movement-Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Det N N N V N VThe dog that

41、 he keeps e bitesSurface structureCCPCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflNPwh movementthe student report the incidentDet N V Det NAuxCInflNPVPNPSInflshouldCPethe student report Det N V NAuxCInflVPNPSInflshouldCPewhatNPev1.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _.A.how words and phrases form sentences

42、.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words C.how people produce and recognize possible sentences D.All of the above.v2.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called _.A.transformational rules B.generative rules C.phrase structure rules D.x-bar theory v3.The sentence st

43、ructure is _.A.only linear B.Only hierarchical C.complex D.both linear and hierarchical Decide True or False v1.Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language,including the combination of morphemes into words.v2.In a complex sentence,the two clauses hold unequal

44、status,one subordinating the other.v3.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.Decide True or False v4.Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.v5.In English syntactic analysis,four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,namely,noun phrase,verb phrase,infinitive phrase,and auxiliary phrase.v6.A noun phrase must contain a noun,but other elements are optional.