1、TextArchitecture is both the process and product of planning,designing and construction.Architectural works,in the material form of buildings,are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art.In relation to buildings,architecture has to do with the planning,designing and constructing form,
2、space and ambience that reflect functional,technical,social,environmental,and aesthetic considerations.It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of material,technology,light and shadow.Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures,including sc
3、heduling,cost estimating and construction administration1.As documentation produced by architects,typically drawings,plans and technical specifications,architecture defines the structure and/or behavior of a building or any other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.In many ancient c
4、ivilizations,such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia,architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural,and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler,the ruling elite,or the
5、state itself.The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.Architectural style developed in the form of the Classical orders.TextThe architecture of differe
6、nt parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe;Buddhist,Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics.Buddhist architecture,in particular,showed great regional diversity.In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were desi
7、gned specifically to enhance the natural landscape.Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE,incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium,but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society.Examples can be found throughout the Mid
8、dle East,North Africa,Spain and the Indian Sub-continent.The widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence European architecture of the Medieval period.In Europe,in both the Classical and Medieval periods,buildings were not often attributed to specific individuals and the names of arch
9、itects remain frequently unknown,despite the vast scaleof the many religious buildings extant from this period.During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trade and written contracts have survived,particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings.The role of archi
10、tect was usually one with that of master mason,or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.TextWith the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology,architecture and engineering began to separate,and the architect began to
11、concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects,often at the expense of technical aspects of building design2.There was also the rise of the gentleman architect who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes,typ
12、ified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles.Formal architectural training in the 19th century,for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in France,gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasi
13、bility.Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects,graduating to the role from clerks.Meanwhile,the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption.Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products,onc
14、e within the province of expensive craftsmanship,became cheaper under machine production.Around the turn of the 20th century,a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Arch
15、itecture.Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund,formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects.TextThe rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here.Following this lead,the Bauhaus school,founded in Weimar,Germany in 1919,redefined the architectural bounds
16、prior set throughout history,viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesisthe apexof art,craft,and technology3.When Modern architecture was first practiced,it was an avant-garde movement with moral,philosophical,and aesthetic underpinnings.Immediately after World War I,pioneering mode
17、rnist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order,focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes.They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declinin
18、g aristocratic order.The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms,removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details.Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements,exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding
19、them behind decorative forms.Many architects resisted Modernism,finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles and as the founders of that movement lost influence in the late 1970s,Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its austerity.Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being
20、too extreme and even harsh in regards to design4.Instead,Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900s to form a middle ground.TextRobert Venturis contention that a decorated shed(an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside)wa
21、s better than a duck(an ungainly building in which the whole form and its function are tied together)gives an idea of these approaches.Since the 1980s,as the complexity of buildings began to increase(in terms of structural systems,services,energy and technologies),the field of architecture became mu
22、lti-disciplinary with specializations for each project type,technological expertise or project delivery methods.The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated,and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability,sustainability,quality,mon
23、ey,and compliance with local laws.A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many.Modernism and Postmodernism,have been criticised by some members of the architectural profession,such as Christopher Alexander,who felt that successful architecture was not a pe
24、rsonal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists;rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create liveable environments,with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral,environmental,and social sciences.TextEnvironmental sustainability has bec
25、ome a mainstream issue,with profound affect on the architectural profession.Many developers,those who support the financing of buildings,have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design,rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost5.Major examples of
26、 this can be found in greener roof designs,biodegradable materials,and more attention to a structures energy usage.This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.New Words and Phrasesambience n.气氛，布景；周围环境aesthetic a.美的；美学的；审美的，具有审美趣味的divine a.
27、神圣的；非凡的；天赐的；极好的elite n.精英；精华；中坚分子pantheistic a.泛神论的；泛神论者的pointed a.尖的；突出的；锐利的；率直的arch n.弓形，拱形；拱门ecclesiastical a.教会的；牧师的；神职的mason n.泥瓦匠prototype n.原型；标准，模范consumption n.消费；消耗；肺痨precursor n.先驱，前导 philosophical a.哲学的；冷静的underpinning n.基础，基础材料；矿业 支柱，支承结构；支撑devoid a.缺乏的；全无的austerity n.紧缩；朴素；苦行；严厉harsh a
28、.严厉的；严酷的；刺耳的；粗糙的；刺目的contention n.争论，争辩；争夺；论点embellish vt.修饰；装饰；润色greener n.没经验的人，生手biodegradable a.生物所能分解的，能进行生物降解的moral a.道德的；精神上的；品性端正的Notes1、Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures,including scheduling,cost estimating and construction administrati
29、on.建筑学还包括实现建筑功能和结构等方面的知识，包括进度安排、费用估算和施工管理。2、With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology,architecture and engineering began to separate,and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects,often at the expense of technical asp
30、ects of building design.随着新兴的知识在科学领域和新材料、新技术的兴起，建筑和工程开始分离，而建筑师开始专注于美学与人文方面，通常关注建筑设计技术方面的费用开支。3、Following this lead,the Bauhaus school,founded in Weimar,Germany in 1919,redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history,viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesisthe apex
31、of art,craft,and technology.在此带动下，于1919年设立在德国魏玛的包豪斯学校，重新定义了历史上先前设定的建筑界限，视建筑作为艺术、工艺和技术的最终综合体。4、Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being too extreme and even harsh in regards to design.后现代主义认为现代主义过于极端,在设计方面认为其太粗糙。Notes5、Many developers,those who support the financing of buildings,have become educated t
32、o encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design,rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost.很多的开发商，即这些建筑的资金提供者，已经受到教育鼓励进行环境可持续性设计，而不是立足于仅考虑短期费用的一些方案。Exercises（Translate the following Chinese into English,or English into Chinese）1、建筑学是研究建筑物及其周围环境的学科，它旨在总结人类建筑活动的经验，以指导建筑
33、设计创作，构造某种体系环境等等。建筑学的内容通常包括技术和艺术两个方面。2、但是建筑又不同于其他艺术门类，它需要大量的财富和技术条件，大量的劳动力和集体智慧才能实现。它的物质表现手段规模之大，为任何其他艺术门类所难以比拟。宏伟的建筑建成不易，保留时间也较长，这些条件导致建筑美学的变革相对迟缓。建筑艺术还常常需要应用绘画、雕刻、工艺美术、园林艺术，创造室内外空间艺术环境。因此，建筑艺术是一门综合性很强的艺术。3、Further,architects themselves are constantly under a process of transformation;they unavoidab
34、ly exist between the multiple poles of reality and abstraction,of the man-made and the natural,of present and future.4、Many studies of the Greek Parthenon show that the frontal elevation design has been ordered according to the golden section rectangle.5、For example,the Doric columns vertical groove
35、d fluting reveals the roundness of their cylindrical shafts through the shadows cast in the brilliant Greek sunlight.6、What makes the building a clear example of passion,clarity and beauty is not simply tile shape of the elements,but the special relationship between them the unity between the parts,and between parts and whole.
