1、TextConstruction intersects almost all fields of human endeavor，and this diversity is reflected in its projects.Designers of hospitals interact closely with medical professionals to serve the needs of patients best.Educational philosophies and practices take shape in the architecture of schools and
2、colleges，while governments and corporations express their“images”with structures that house their offices and production facilities.The design and construction of refineries，factories，and power plants generally require that the builders be more knowledgeable of the related industrial technologies th
3、an the manufactures and utilities that operate them.Builders of dams，tunnels，bridges，and other civil engineerings today must be geologists，ecologists，and sociologists as well as architects，engineers，and managers.And most of us recognize how intimately the design and quality of our building environme
4、nt either enhance or frustrate our personal lives.It is difficult，if not impossible，to categorize neatly so great a spectrum of projects.The exceptions，the ones that transcend the boundaries，often seem to outnumber those that are clearly recognizable.What follows，nevertheless，are four somewhat arbit
5、rary but generally accepted major types of construction.In large measure，these categories parallel the generals pecialties into which designers and constructors tend to group themselves.TextResidential Housing ConstructionResidential housing construction includes single-family homes，multiunit town h
6、ouses，garden apartments，high-rise apartments and condominiums.The later，in particular，are technologically less closely related to residences than to the following description of nonresidential building construction and are sometimes incorporated as part of multipurpose commercial developments.They a
7、re classified here from the users point of view.Residential housing construction accounts for about 30 to 35 percent of construction expenditures in an average year.Although largely financed by the private sector，the supply and demand for residential construction is heavily impacted by governmental
8、regulation and fiscal policy.There are a few very large firms，but as a rule the low capital and technology requirements in this sector of the industry means that it is characterized by large quantities of very small firms.Demand instability，among other things，causes a high rate of business failures
9、among them.Designs are generally done by either architects，home designers or the builders themselves，and construction is usually handled by either independent contractors or developer-builders.Whether in single units or in large developments，however，there has been a small but growing trend toward in
10、dustrialization and factory mass production of some major components in recent decade，and even complete modular homes.TextOffice and Commercial Building ConstructionOffice and commercial building construction encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes，such as schools and universities，med
11、ical clinics and hospitals，recreational facilities and sports stadiums，retail chain stores and large shopping centers，warehouses and light manufacturing plants，and skyscrapers for offices and hotels.This sector typically accounts for 35 to 40 percent of the construction market.The owners of such bui
12、ldings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices，but they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves.Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for designing a specific type of build
13、ing，while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building.Though labor-and-materials-intensive like residential construction，the scope and technology of These buildings are generally much larger and more complex.Because of the highe
14、r costs and greater sophistication of office and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing，this market segment is shared by fewer competitors.Since the construction of some of these buildings are a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion，the
15、demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing.Consequently，the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market.In an oligopoly situation，only a limited number of competitors exist，and a firms price for services may be
16、 based in part on its competitive strategies in the local market.TextHeavy Engineering ConstructionThough accounting only for 20 to 25 percent of the market，heavy engineering construction includes many of the structures for which the industry is best known.Dams and tunnels provide hydroelectric powe
17、r，flood control，and irrigation；bridges range from footpaths to internationally famous landmarks such as spaning San Franciscos Golden Gate；Other transportation structures include interstate railways，airports，highways，and urban rapid transit systems；ports and harbor structures fall into this category
18、，as do many of those in the deep open sea.Pipelines are included here，as are some of our more utilitarian structures，such as water treatment and distribution systems，sewage and storm water collection，treatment and disposal systems，power lines，and communication networks.Both the design and constructi
19、on phases of heavy construction are primarily the domain of civil engineers，though almost all disciplines play important roles.The construction phase is much more equipment-intensive，characterized by fleets of large earthmovers，cranes，and trucks，working with massive quantities of basic materials suc
20、h as earth，rock，steel，concrete，timber，and pipe.Another major distinction is that many，if not most，heavy construction projects are publicly financed，and this fact in turn limits other alternative contractual arrangements in this sector.TextTypically，design is done either by，or under contract with，a p
21、ublic agency，and construction is by competitive open bidding.Construction contractors here usually require much greater expertise in engineering and geology than to those in office and commercial building and residential housing construction.Industrial ConstructionIndustrial construction represents
22、only about 5 to 10 percent of the market，but it has some of the largest projects and is dominated by some of the largest engineering and construction firms.These projects include petroleum refineries and petrochemical plants；synthetic fuel plants；fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants；mine development
23、s，smelters，steel mills，and aluminum plants；large heavy-manufacturing plants；and other facilities essential to our utilities and basic industries.Both design and construction require the highest levels of engineering expertise，from not only civil engineering，but also chemical，electrical，mechanical，an
24、d other disciplines，and typically all phase of the project are handled by the same firm on a negotiated design-construct or“turnkey”contractual arrangement，with considerable overlap between design，procurement，and construction.The designers and constructors must be intimately familiar with the techno
25、logies andTextoperations of the facility from the owners point of view，and often they hold some of the key patents for advanced process technologies needed therein.In the western free-enterprise countries，most of these industrial constructions are privately financed.In contrast with the basic materi
26、als characteristic of heavy engineering construction the major factors in industrial construction generally consist of large amounts of highly complex mechanical，electrical，process piping，and instrumentation work.This work tends to be much more labor-intensive，though some of the largest hoisting and
27、 materials-handling equipments are also required.New Words and Phrasesintersect vi.相交，交叉，横断take shape 成形，形成，具体化，体现refinery n.精炼厂，炼制厂intimately adv.密切地transcend vt.超越，胜过in large measure 在很大程度上，大部分high-rise n.高楼，大厦；adj.高层的condominium n.共管，共有房产town house（居住在乡间者的）市内住宅，城内住宅field-labor-intensive 现场劳动力密集型的
28、account for 占，说明fiscal adj.财政的skyscraper n.摩天大楼sophistication n.老于世故，老练；复杂oligopoly n.垄断，求过于供（的市场情况）footpath n.人行道，小路pipeline n.管道，管线earthmover n.重型推土机New Words and Phrasescrane n.起重机fosil-fuel n.矿物燃料smelter n.熔炉，熔炼工procurement n.获得，取得speculative adj.推测的，纯理论的，投机的hoist n.升起，提升间Notes（1）while governmen
29、ts and corporations express their“images”with structures that houseTheir offices and production facilities.而政府与企业则以容纳其办公或生产的建筑物来体现他们的形象。（2）What follows，nevertheless，are four somewhat arbitrary but generally accepted major types ofconstruction.In large measure，these categories parallel the general sp
30、ecialties into which designers and constructors tend to group themselves.不过，以下就是划分的四种主要的建筑类型，如此的划分带有一定程度的武断性，但通常被人们接受。如此分类在很大程度上与设计者和建造者们通常使用的分类是一致的。（3）There are a few very large firms，but as a rule the low capital and technology requirements inThis sector of the industry means that it is characteri
31、zed by large quantities of very small firms.住宅建筑领域有不少大型企业，但由于该行业对于资本和技术的要求一般较低，所以占主导地位的还是大量的小型企业。句中的as a rule为“通常”、“一般”的意思。Notes（4）Though labor-and-materials-intensive like residential construction，the scope and technologyOf these buildings are generally much larger and more complex.虽然它们和住宅类建筑一样，也是劳
32、动力与材料密集型，但是此类项目范围更广，所包含的技术更复杂。句中的labor-and-materials-intensive为“劳动力与材料密集型”的意思。Much larger与More complex分别对应前面的the scope与technology.（5）Typically all phase of the project are handled by the same firm on a negotiated design-constructor“turnkey”contractual arrangement，with considerable overlap among desi
33、gn，procurement，and construction.（工业建筑）项目各阶段的工作一般依据设计建造或交钥匙合同由同一家企业来承担，因而其设计、采购与施工等各阶段工作之间存在相当大的工作联系。“turnkey”contractual arrangement，交钥匙合同方式，即工程项目建设的全过程，包括设计、采购、施工、运行试验等都由同一家企业承包，最后它将一个随时可以使用的工程交给合同另一方的方式。Exercises（Translate the following Chinese into English,or English into Chinese）1.工程建设是一个相对来说比较危
34、险的行业。事实上，由于伤病较多，建筑业中的病假和缺勤要比任何其他产业多得多。2.房地产有许多不同于其他产品的特性，这些特性可分为物理特性和经济特性3.一个城市规划的执行在很大程度上依赖于区划的力量。区划是管理和控制土地及其使用的一种手段，即使对于私人拥有的物业也依然如此。4.尽管工业建设只是整个建设行业的一小部分但它是一个非常重要的一部分。5.工程量表是指构成投标书一部分的已标价的以及完成的工程量表。6.The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment,whether
35、its owner happens to be an individual,a private corporation or a public agency.7.The management of construction projects requires knowledge of modern management as well as an understanding of the design and construction process.8.Works means the permanent Works and the Temporary Works or either of t
36、hem as appropriate.9.Temporary Works means all temporary works of every kind(other than Contractors Equipment)required in or about the execution and completion of the Works and the remedying of any defects therein.10.Residential construction projects include houses,townhouses,apartments,condominiums,cottages,single unit dwellings and subdivisions.
